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CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.

Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lost1 except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.

The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a), perhaps never had a suffix of its own.2 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386).

The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative.

The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421). To indicate the case-relations—especially those of place—more precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by caseforms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, §§ 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, § 421 ff.)

The word cāsus, case, is a translation of the Greek πτῶσις, a falling away (from the erect position). The term πτῶσις was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called ὀρθή, erect ( cāsus rēctus ). The later name Nominative ( cāsus nōminātīvus ) is from nōminō , and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive ( cāsus genetīvus ) is a translation of γενική [πτῶσις], from γένος (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative ( cāsus datīvus , from dō ) is translated from δοτική, and means the case of giving. Accusative ( accūsātīvus , from accūsō ) is a mistranslation of αἰτιατική (the case of causing), from αἰτία, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative ( vocātīvus , from vocō) is translated from κλητική (the case of calling). The name Ablative ( ablātīvus , from ablātus, auferō) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.

NOMINATIVE CASE

339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:—
  1. “ Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat ” (B. G. 4.17) , Cæsar had determined to cross the Rhine.

For the omission of a pronominal subject, see § 295. a.

a. The nominative may be used in exclamations:—

  1. “ēn dextra fidēsque ” (Aen. 4.597) , lo, the faith and plighted word!
  2. “ecce tuae litterae dē Varrōne ” (Att. 13.16) , lo and behold, your letters aoout Varro!

Note.--But the accusative is more common (§ 397. d).

VOCATIVE CASE

340. The Vocative is the case of direct address:—
  1. “ Tiberīne pater, tē, sāncte, precor ” (Liv. 2.10) , O father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray.
  2. “rēs omnis mihi tēcum erit, Hortēnsī ” (Verr. 1.33) , my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius.

a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:—

  1. “audī tū, populus Albānus ” (Liv. 1.24) , hear, thou people of Alba.

b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:—

  1. “quō moritūre ruis ” (Aen. 10.811) , whither art thou rushing to thy doom?
  2. “cēnsōrem trabeāte salūtās ” (Pers. 3.29) , robed you salute the censor.

c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte estō ( virtūte ), success attend your (valor):—

  1. “iubērem tē macte virtūte esse ” (Liv. 2.12) , I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor.
  2. “ macte novā virtūte puer ” (Aen. 9.641) , success attend your valor, boy!

Note.--As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.

GENITIVE CASE

341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases.

The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows:—

I. Genitive with Nouns: 1. Of Possession (§ 343).
2. Of Material (§ 344).
3. Of Quality (§ 345).
4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, § 346).
5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (§ 348).
II. Genitive with Adjectives: 1. After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) (§ 349).
2. Of Specification (later use) (§ 349. d).
III. Genitive with Verbs: 1. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. (§§ 350, 351, 354).
2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 352).

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS

342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.

This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:—

  1. librī Cicerōnis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.
  2. inimīcī Caesaris, Cæsar's enemies, or the enemies of Cæsar.
  3. talentum aurī, a talent of gold.
  4. vir summae virtūtis, a man of the greatest courage.

But observe the following equivalents:—

  1. vacātiō labōris, a respite FROM toil.
  2. petītiō cōnsulātūs, candidacy FOR the consulship.
  3. rēgnum cīvitātis, royal power OVER the state.

Possessive Genitive

343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:—
  1. Alexandrī canis, Alexander's dog.
    2. potentia Pompêī (Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.
  2. “ Ariovistī mors ” (B. G. 5.29) , the death of Ariovistus.
  3. “ perditōrum temeritās ” (Mil. 22) , the recklessness of desperate men.

Note 1.--The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog） or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, § 347).

Note 2.--The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:—

  1. “ad Castoris [aedēs] ” (Quinct. 17) , at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]
  2. Flaccus Claudī, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
    3. Hectoris Andromachē; (Aen. 3.319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.

a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,—regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns (§ 302. a):—

  1. liber meus, my book. [Not liber meī .]
  2. aliēna perīcula, other men's dangers. [But also aliōrum .]
  3. Sullāna tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae .]

b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):—

  1. haec domus est patris meī, this house is my father's.
  2. “iam mē Pompêī tōtum esse scīs ” (Fam. 2.13) , you know I am now all for Pompey (all Pompey's).
  3. “summa laus et tua et Brūtī est ” (Fam. 12.4.2) , the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).
  4. compendī facere, to save (make of saving).
  5. lucrī facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).

Note.--These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283).

c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:—

  1. “neque suī iūdicī [erat] discernere ” (B. C. 1.35) , nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
  2. “ cûiusvīs hominis est errāre ” (Phil. 12.5) , it is any man's [liability] to err.
  3. “negāvit mōris esse Graecōrum, ut in convīviō virōrum accumberent mulierēs ” (Verr. 2.1.66) , he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
  4. “sed timidī est optāre necem ” (Ov. M. 4.115) , but't is the coward's part to wish for death.
  5. “ stultī erat spērāre, suādēre impudentis ” (Phil. 2.23) , it was folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.
  6. sapientis est pauca loquī, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. [Not sapiēns (neuter） est, etc.]

Note 1.--This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).

Note 2.--A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:—

  1. mentīrī nōn est meum [not meī ], it is not for me to lie.
  2. hūmānum [for hominis ] est errāre, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).

d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) (§ 282):—

  1. nōmen īnsāniae (for nōmen īnsānia ), the word madness.
  2. oppidum Antiochīae (for oppidum Antiochīa , the regular form), the city of Antioch.

Genitive of Material

344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. § 403):—

talentum aurī, a talent of gold. flūmina lactis, rivers of milk.

Genitive of Quality

345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective:—
  1. vir summae virtūtis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtūtis .]
  2. māgnae est dēlīberātiōnis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
  3. “ māgnī formīca labōris ” (Hor. S. 1.1.33) , the ant [a creature] of great toil.
  4. “ille autem suī iūdicī ” (Nep. Att. 9) , but he [a man] of independent (his own) judgment.

Note.--Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415). In expressions of quality, the genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestantī prūdentiā vir, a man of surpassing wisdom; maximī animī homō, a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the ablative; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with êius , and to nouns modified by māgnus , maximus , summus , or tantus . In general the Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.

a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases êius modī , cûius modī (equivalent to tālis, such; quālis, of what sort):—

    êius modī sunt tempestātēs cōnsecūtae, utī; (B. G. 3.29), such storms followed, that, etc.

b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):—

  1. fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].
  2. mūrus sēdecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].

For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see § 417.

Partitive Genitive

346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs.

a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are—

    Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below):—
    1. pars mīlitum, part of the soldiers. quis nostrum, which of us?
    2. nihil erat reliquī, there was nothing left.
    3. “nēmō eōrum” (B. G. 7.66) , not a man of them.
    4. māgnam partemeōruminterfēcērunt (id. 2.23), they killed a large part of them.
    Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius , alter , nūllus , etc.:—
    1. ūnus tribūnōrum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
    2. “sapientum octāvus ” (Hor. S. 2.3.296) , the eighth of the wise men.
    3. “mīliapassuum sescenta ” (B. G. 4.3) , six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
    4. mâior frātrum, the elder of the brothers.
    5. animāliumfortiōra, the stronger [of] animals.
    6. “Suēbōrum gēns est longē maxima et bellicōsissimaGermānōrum omnium” (B. G. 4.1) , the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of all the Germans.
    7. alter cōnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
    8. “nūlla eārum” (B.G. 4.28) , not one of them (the ships).
    Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns:—
    1. tantum spatī, so much [of] space.
    2. aliquid nummōrum, a few pence (something of coins).
    3. id locī (or locōrum ), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a).
    4. plāna urbis, the level parts of the town.
    5. quid novī, what news? (what of new?)
    6. “paulum frūmentī” (B. C. 1.78) , a little grain.
    7. “plūs dolōris” (B. G. 1.20) , more grief.
    8. “suī aliquid timōris” (B. C. 2.29) , some fear of his own (something of his own fear).

    Note 1.--In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a partitive genitive, except multum , tantum , quantum, and similar words.

    Note 2.--The genitive of adjectives of the third declensionis rarely used partitively:nihil novī (genitive), nothing new; but,nihil memorābile (nominative), nothing worth mention (not nihil memorābilis ).

    Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place:—
    1. parum ōtī, not much ease (too little of ease).
    2. satis pecūniae, money enough (enough of money).
    3. “plūrimumtōtīus Galliae equitātū valet ” (B. G. 5.3) , is strongest of all Gaul in cavalry.
    4. “ubinam gentium sumus ” (Cat. 1.9) , where in the world are we (where of nations)?
    5. “ubicumqueterrārum et gentium” (Verr. 5.143) , wherever in the whole world.
    6. “rēs erat eō iamlocī ut ” (Sest. 68) , the business had now reached such a point that, etc.
    7. “eō miseriārum” (Iug. 14.3) , to that [pitch] of misery.
    8. inde locī, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
b. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case:—
  1. “sequimur tē, sāncte deōrum ” (Aen. 4.576) , we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sāncte deus (§ 49. g. N.)]
  2. “nigrae lānārum ” (Plin. H. N. 8.193) , black wools. [For nigrae lānae .]
  3. “expedītī mīlitum ” (Liv. 30.9) , light-armed soldiers. [For expedītī mīlitēs .]
  4. “ hominum cūnctōs ” (Ov. M. 4.631) , all men. [For cūnctōs hominēs; cf. e.]

c. Cardinal numerals (except mīlia ) regularly take the Ablative with ē ( ex ) or dē instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quīdam, a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally:—

  1. ūnus ex tribūnīs, one of the tribunes. [But also, ūnus tribūnōrum (cf. a. 2).]
  2. “minumus ex illīs ” (Iug. 11) , the youngest of them.
  3. medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
  4. quīdam ex mīlitibus, certain of the soldiers.
  5. “ūnus dē multīs ” (Fin. 2.66) , one of the many.
  6. “paucī dē nostrīs cadunt ” (B. G. 1.15) , a few of our men fall.
  7. hominem dē comitibus meīs, a man of my companions.

d. Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns take a partitive genitive:—

  1. uterque cōnsul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
  2. ūnus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
  3. utraque castra, both camps.

e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of:—

  1. nōs omnēs, all of us (we all). [Not omnēs nostrum .]
  2. quot sunt hostēs, how many of the enemy are there?
  3. cavē inimīcōs, quī multī sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.
  4. multī mīlitēs, many of the soldiers.
  5. nēmō Rōmānus, not one Roman.

Objective Genitive

347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

348. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the Object:—

Note.--This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Cæsar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Cæsar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a). The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example: the phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive).

cāritās tuī, affection for you. dēsīderium ōtī, longing for rest.
vacātiō mūneris, relief from duty. grātia beneficī, gratitude for kindness.
fuga malōrum, refuge from disaster. precātiō deōrum, prayer to the gods.
contentiō honōrum, struggle for office. opīniō virtūtis, reputation for valor.

a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or other derivative adjective:—

  1. mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. odium “meī” (Har. Resp. 5) , hatred of me.]
  2. “laudātor meus ” (Att. 1.16.5) , my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostrī laudātor (id. 1.14.6).]
  3. “ Clōdiānum crīmen ” (Mil. 72) , the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As we say, the Nathan murder.]
  4. “metus hostīlis ” (Iug. 41) , fear of the enemy (hostile fear).
  5. “ea quae faciēbat, tuā sē fīdūciā facere dīcēbat ” (Verr. 5.176) , what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance).
  6. “neque neglegentiā tuā, neque id odiō fēcit tuō ” (Ter. Ph. 1016) , he did this neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.

b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive:—

    animī multārum rērum percursiō; (Tusc. 4.31), the mind's traversing of many things.

c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective genitive:—

  1. “odium in Antōnium ” (Fam. 10.5.3) , hate of Antony.
  2. merita ergā mē (id. 1.1.1), services to me.
  3. meam in tē pietātem (id. 1.9.1), my devotion to you.
  4. “impetus in urbem ” (Phil. 12.29) , an attack on the city.
    5. “excessus ē vītā ” (Fin. 3.60) , departure from life. [Also, excessus vītae , Tusc. 1.27.]
  5. “adoptiō in Domitium ” (Tac. Ann. 12.25) , the adoption of Domitius. [A late and bold extension of this construction.]

Note.--So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. b): as, “—longō bellō māteria” (Tac. H. 1.89) , resources for a long war.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive.

a. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive:—

  1. “avidī laudis ” (Manil. 7) , greedy of praise.
  2. fastīdiōsus litterārum, disdaining letters.
  3. iūris perītus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, iūre , cf. § 418.]
  4. “memorem vestrī, oblītum suī ” (Cat. 4.19) , mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
  5. “ ratiōnis et ōrātiōnis expertēs ” (Off. 1.50) , devoid of sense and speech.
    6. nostrae cōnsuētūdinis imperītī; (B. G. 4.22), unacquainted with our customs.
  6. plēnus fideī, full of good faith.
  7. “omnis speī egēnam ” (Tac. Ann. 1.53) , destitute of all hope.
  8. “ tempestātum potentem ” (Aen. 1.80) , having sway over the storms.
  9. “impotēns īrae ” (Liv. 29.9.9) , ungovernable in anger.
  10. “ coniūrātiōnis participēs ” (Cat. 3.14) , sharing in the conspiracy.
  11. “affīnis reī capitālis ” (Verr. 2.2.94) , involved in a capital crime.
  12. “īnsōns culpae ” (Liv. 22.49) , innocent of guilt.

b. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a particular act:—

    sī quem tuī amantiōrem cōgnōvistī; (Q. Fr. 1.1.15), if you have become acquainted with any one more fond of you.
  1. “multitūdō īnsolēns bellī ” (B. C. 2.36) , a crowd unused to war.
  2. “erat Iugurtha appetēns glōriae mīlitāris ” (Iug. 7) , Jugurtha was eager for military glory.

Note 1.--Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as,—Sp. Maelium rēgnum appetentem interēmit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Mælius, who was aspiring to royal power.

Note 2.--Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as,virtūs quam aliī ipsam temperantiam dīcunt esse, “aliī obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptīs et eam subsequentem” (Tusc. 4.30) , observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.

c. Verbals in -āx (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin:—

  1. “iūstum et tenācem prōpositī virum ” (Hor. Od. 3.3) , a man just and steadfast to his purpose.
  2. “circus capāx populī ” (Ov. A. A. 1.136) , a circus big enough to hold the people.
  3. “cibī vīnīque capācissimus ” (Liv. 9.16.13) , a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine).

d. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists (Genitive of Specification):—

  1. “callidus reī mīlitāris ” (Tac. H. 2.32) , skilled in soldiership.
  2. “pauper aquae ” (Hor. Od. 3.30.11) , scant of water.
  3. nōtus animī paternī (id. 2.2.6), famed for a paternal spirit.
  4. “fessī rērum ” (Aen. 1.178) , weary of toil.
  5. “integer vītae scelerisque pūrus ” (Hor. Od. 1.22.1) , upright in life, and unstained by guilt.

Note.--The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge; pauper, want; pūrus, innocence; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a.

For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385. c. For Adjectives with animī (locative in origin), see § 358.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS

Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting

350. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object:—

a. Meminī takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaintances, or of things which one has experienced.

So oblīvīscor in the opposite sense,—to forget literally, to lose all memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).

    Cinnam meminī; (Phil. 5.17), I remember Cinna.
  1. utinam avum tuum meminissēs (id. 1.34), oh! that you could remember your grandfather! (but he died before you were born).
  2. “Postumium, cûius statuam in Isthmō meminisse tē dīcis ” (Att. 13.32) , Postumius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
  3. “omnia meminit Sīron Epicūrī dogmata ” (Acad. 2.106) , Siron remembers all the doctrines of Epicurus.
  4. “ multa ab aliīs audīta meminērunt ” (De Or. 2.355) , they remember many things that they have heard from others.
  5. “tōtam causam oblītus est ” (Brut. 217) , he forgot the whole case.
  6. “hinc iam oblīvīscere Grâiōs ” (Aen. 2.148) , from henceforth forget the Greeks (i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if you had never known them).

b. Meminī takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling).

So oblīvīscor in the opposite sense,—to disregard, or dismiss from the mind,—and the adjective oblītus, careless or regardless.

  1. “ipse suī meminerat ” (Verr. 2.2.136) , he was mindful of himself (of his own interests).
    2. faciam ut hûius locī diei que mei que semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.
    nec mē meminisse pigēbit Elissae, dum memor ipse meī; (Aen. 4.335), nor shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
  2. “meminerint verēcundiae ” (Off. 1.122) , let them cherish modesty.
    3. hūmānae īnfīrmitātis meminī; (Liv. 30.31.6), I remember human weakness.
  3. “oblīvīscī temporum meōrum, meminisse āctiōnum ” (Fam. 1.9.8) , to disregard my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.
    4. nec tamen Epicūrī licet oblīvīscī; (Fin. 5.3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
  4. “oblīvīscere caedis atque incendiōrum ” (Cat. 1.6) , turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).

Note 1.--With both meminī and oblīvīscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regularly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).

Note 2.-- Meminī in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as,eundem Achillam cûius suprā “meminimus” (B. C. 3.108) , that same Achillas whom I mentioned above.

c. Reminīscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of:—

  1. “dulcīs moriēns reminīscitur Argōs ” (Aen. 10.782) , as he dies he calls to mind his beloved Argos.
  2. “reminīscerētur et veteris incommodī populī Rōmānī et prīstinae virtūtis Helvētiōrum ” (B. G. 1.13) , let him remember both the former discomfiture of the Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning,— let him bear it in mind (and beware)!]

d. Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative:—

    recordāre cōnsēnsum illum theātrī; (Phil. 1.30), recall that unanimous agreement of the [audience in the] theatre.
  1. “recordāminī omnīs cīvīlīs dissēnsiōnēs ” (Cat. 3.24) , call to mind all the civil wars.

Note.-- Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12); it is never used with a personal object, but may be followed by dē with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. § 351. N.):—

  1. “ dē tē recordor ” (Scaur. 49) , I remember about you.
  2. dē illīs (lacrimīs) “recordor” (Planc. 104) , I am reminded of those tears.

Verbs of Reminding

351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c).

So admoneō , commoneō , commonefaciō , commonefīō. But moneō with the genitive is found in late writers only.

    Catilīna admonēbat alium egestātis, alium cupiditātis suae (Sall. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
    eōs hōc moneō; (Cat. 2.20), I give them this warning.
  1. “ quod vōs lēx commonet ” (Verr. 3.40) , that which the law reminds you of.

Note.--All these verbs often take dē with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:—

    saepius tē admoneō dē syngraphā Sittiānā; (Fam. 8.4.5) I remind you again and again of Sittius's bond.
  1. officium vostrum ut vōs malō cōgātis commonērier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.

Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting

352. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty:—
  1. arguit mē furtī, he accuses me of theft.
    2. pecūlātūs damnātus (pecūniae pūblicae damnātus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for embezzlement.
  2. “videō nōn tē absolūtum esse improbitātis, sed illōs damnātōs esse caedis ” (Verr. 2.1.72) , I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.

a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are—

  1. capitis , as in damnāre capitis, to sentence to death.
  2. mâiestātis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state).
  3. repetundārum [rērum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
  4. vōtī damnātus (or reus ), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. successful in one's effort.
  5. pecūniae (damnāre, iūdicāre, see note).
  6. duplī etc., as in duplī condemnāre, condemn to pay twofold.

Note.--The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by “pecūniae damnāre” (Gel. 20.1.38) , to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecūniae iūdicātī essent (id.xx.1.47), how much money they were adjudged to pay, in a mere suit for debt; cōnfessī aeris ac dēbitī iūdicātī (id.xx.1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary to assume an ellipsis of crīmine or iūdiciō .

353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are—

    The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 416):—
      Frusinātēstertiā parteagrī damnātī; (Liv. 10.1), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
    The Ablative with dē , or the Accusative with inter , in idiomatie expressions:—
    1. dē aleā, for gambling; dē ambitū, for bribery.
    2. dē pecūniīs repetundīs, of extortion (cf. § 352. a).
    3. “inter sīcāriōs ” (Rosc. Am. 90) , as an assassin (among the assassins).
      4. dē vī et mâiestātis damnātī; (Phil. 1.21), convicted of assault and treason.

    Note.--The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the penalty: as,— “ad mortem” (Tac. Ann. 16.21) , to death; ad ( in ) metalla, to the mines.

Verbs of Feeling

354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling.

a. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miserēscō , take the genitive:—

  1. “miserēminī familiae, iūdicēs, miserēminī patris, miserēminī fīlī ” (Flacc. 106) , have pity on the family, etc.
  2. “miserēre animī nōn dīgna ferentis ” (Aen. 2.144) , pity a soul that endures unworthy things.
  3. miserēscite rēgis (id. 8.573), pity the king. [Poetical.]

Note.--But miseror , commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as, “—commūnem condiciōnem miserārī” (Mur. 55) , bewail the common lot.

b. As impersonals, miseret , paenitet , piget , pudet , taedet (or pertaesum est ), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected:—

  1. “ quōs īnfāmiae suae neque pudet neque taedet ” (Verr. 1.35) , who are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
  2. “ mē miseret parietum ipsōrum ” (Phil. 2.69) , I pity the very walls.
  3. “ mē cīvitātis mōrum piget taedetque ” (Iug. 4) , I am sick and tired of the ways of the state.
  4. “ decemvirōrum vōs pertaesum est ” (Liv. 3.67) , you became tired of the decemvirs.

c. With miseret , paenitet , etc., the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:—

  1. “neque mē paenitet mortālīs inimīcitiās habēre ” (Rab. Post. 32) , nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities.
  2. nōn dedisse istunc pudet; mē quia nōn accēpī piget (Pl. Pseud. 282), he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.

Note.-- Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as subject: as, “—nōn tē haec pudent” (Ter. Ad. 754) , do not these things shame you?

Interest and Rēfert

355. The impersonals interest and rēfert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected.

The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause:—

    Clōdī intererat Milōnem perīre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.
  1. “aliquid quod illōrum magis quam suā rētulisse vidērētur ” (Iug. 111) , something which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
  2. “videō enim quid meā intersit, quid utrīusque nostrum ” (Fam. 7.23.4) , for 1 see what is for my good and for the good of us both.

a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or rēfert :—

    quid tuā id rēfert? māgnī; (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.]
  1. “vehementer intererat vestrā quī patrēs estis ” (Plin. Ep. 4.13.4) , it would be very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.

Note.--This is the only construction with rēfert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above).

b. The accusative with ad is used with interest and rēfert to express the thing with reference to which one is interested:—

  1. “māgnī ad honōrem nostrum interest ” (Fam. 16.1) , it is of great consequence to our honor.
  2. “rēfert etiam ad frūctūs ” (Varr. R. R. 1.16.6) , it makes a difference as to the crop.

Note 1.--Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with rēfert ) by the dative (probably a popular corruption):—

  1. “quid id ad mē aut ad meam rem rēfert ” (Pl. Per. 513) , what difference does that make to me or to my interests?
  2. “quid rēferat intrā nātūrae fīnīs vīventī ” (Hor. S. 1.1.49) , what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire?
  3. nōn rēferre dēdecorī (Tac. Anu. 15.65), that it makes no difference as to the disgrace.

Note 2.--The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, or an adverbial accusative.

Verbs of Plenty and Want

356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the genitive (cf. § 409. a. N.):—
    convīvium vīcīnōrum compleō; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
  1. “implentur veteris Bacchī pinguisque ferīnae ” (Aen. 1.215) , they fill themselves with old wine and fat venison.
  2. “nē quis auxilī egeat ” (B. G. 6.11) , lest any require aid.
  3. “quid est quod dēfēnsiōnis indigeat ” (Rosc. Am. 34) , what is there that needs defence?
    4. quae ad cōnsōlandum mâiōris ingenī et ad ferendum singulāris virtūtis indigent (Fam. 6.4.2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.

Note.--Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a, <*>01), except egeō , which takes either case, and indigeō . But the genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation and want (cf. § 357. b. 3):—

  1. “abstinētō īrārum ” (Hor. Od. 3.27.69) , refrain from wrath.
  2. operum solūtīs (id. 3.17.16), free from toils.
  3. dēsine mollium querellārum (id. 2.9.17), have done with weak complaints.

Genitive with Special Verbs

357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.

a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potīrī rērum, to be master of affairs:—

    illīus rēgnī potīrī; (Fam. 1.7.5), to become master of that kingdom.
  1. “Cleanthēs sōlem dominārī et rērum potīrī putat ” (Acad. 2.126) , Cleanthes thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.

Note.--But potior usually takes the ablative (see § 410).

b. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive—

    By analogy with those mentioned in § 354:—
    1. “neque hûius sīs veritus fēminaeprīmāriae ” (Ter. Ph. 971) , and you had no respect for this high-born lady.
    As akin to adjectives which take the genitive:—
    1. fastīdit meī (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastīdiōsus.]
      2. studet tuī (quoted N. D. 3.72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiōsus.]
    In imitation of the Greek:—
    1. “iūstitiaene prius mīrer, bellīne labōrum” (Aen. 11.126) , shall I rather admire his justice or his toils in war?
    2. “neque ille sēpositīciceris nec longae invīdit avēnae” (Hor. S. 2.6.84) , nor did he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]
    3. “labōrum dēcipitur ” (Hor. Od. 2.13.38) , he is beguiled of his woes.
    4. “mēlabōrum levās ” (Pl. Rud. 247) , you relieve me of my troubles.
358. The apparent Genitive animī (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:—

  1. “Antiphō mē excruciat animī” (Ter. Ph. 187) , Antipho tortures my mind (me in my mind).
  2. “quī pendet animī” (Tusc. 4.35) , who is in suspense.
  3. “mē animīfallit ” (Lucr. 1.922) , my mind deceives me.
  4. “So, by analogy, dēsipiēbam mentis” (Pl. Epid. 138) , I was out of my head.
  5. aeger animī, sick at heart; cōnfūsus animī, disturbed in spirit.
  6. “sānus mentis aut animī” (Pl. Trin. 454) , sound in mind or heart.

PECULIAR GENITIVES

359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following:—

a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation):—

    dī immortālēs,mercimōnīlepidī; (Pl. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charming bargain!
    foederis heu tacitī; (Prop. 4.7.21), alas for the unspoken agreement!
b. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causā , grātiā, for the sake of; ergō, because of; and the indeclinable īnstar, like; also with prīdiē, the day before; postrīdiē, the day after; tenus, as far as:

  1. honōris causā, with due respect (for the sake of honor).
  2. verbīgrātiā, for example.
  3. êius lēgisergō, on account of this law.
  4. “equus īnstar montis” (Aen. 2.15) , a horse huge as a mountain (the image of a mountain).
  5. laterum tenus (id. 10.210), as far as the sides.

Note 1.--Of these the genitive with causā is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nōmen īnsāniae (§ 343.d). The others are of various origin.

Note 2.--In prose of the Republican Period prīdiē and postrīdiē are thus used only in the expressions prīdiē ( postrīdiē ) êius diēī, the day before (after) that (cf. “the eve, the morrow of that day”). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as,—postrīdiē īnsidiārum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a.Tenus takes also the ablative (p. 136).

DATIVE CASE

360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clāmor caelō , Aen. 5.451) are regarded as survivals of the original use.

In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings:—

  1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puerō librum, he gave the boy a book, or fēcit mihi iniūriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a).
  2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in §§ 383, 384.

The uses of the Dative are the following:—

1. Indirect Object (general use): 1. With Transitives (§ 362).
2. With Intransitives (§§ 366-372).
2. Special or Idiomatic Uses: 1. Of Possession (with esse ) (§ 373).
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 374).
3. Of Reference ( datīvus commodī ) (§§ 376-381).
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (§ 382).
5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (§§ 383, 384).

INDIRECT OBJECT

361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected by an action.

This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted in English by the objective with to:—

  1. cēdite temporī, yield to the occasion.
  2. prōvincia Cicerōnī obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.
  3. inimīcīs nōn crēdimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.

INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES

362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see § 274):—
  1. dō tibi librum, I give you a book.
    2. illud tibi affīrmō; (Fam. 1.7.5), this I assure you.
  2. commendō tibi êius omnia negōtia (id. 1.3), I put all his affairs in your hands (commit them to you).
    3. dabis profectō misericordiae quod īrācundiae negāvistī; (Deiot. 40), you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
  3. “litterās ā tē mihi stator tuus reddidit ” (Fam. 2.17) , your messenger delivered to me a letter from you.

a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone:—

  1. mihi id aurum crēdidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
  2. “ equō nē crēdite ” (Aen. 2.48) , put not your trust in the horse.
  3. “concessit senātus postulātiōnī tuae ” (Mur. 47) , the senate yielded to your demand.
  4. “concēdere amīcīs quidquid velint ” (Lael. 38) , to grant to friends all they may wish.

363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion (§§ 426, 427):—

    Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails:—
      litterās quāsad Pompêiumscrīpsī; (Att. 3.8.4), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. nōn quō habērem quod tibiscrīberem (id. 4.4A), not that I had anything to write to you]
    1. “litterae extemplōRōmam scrīptae ” (Liv. 41.16) , a letter was immediately written [and sent] to Rome.
    2. “hostīs in fugam dat ” (B. G. 5.51) , he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. “ut mē dem fugae” (Att. 7.23) , to take to flight.]
    3. “omnēs rem ad Pompêiumdēferrī volunt ” (Fam. 1.1) , all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
    On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:—
    1. “mihi litterās mittere ” (Fam. 7.12) , to send me a letter.
    2. eum librum tibimīsī; (id. 7.19), I sent you that book.
    3. nec quicquam quod nōnmihi Caesar dētulerit (id. 4.13), and nothing which Cæsar did not communicate to me.
    4. cūrēs utmihi vehantur (id. 8.4.5), take care that they be conveyed to me.
    5. “cum aliusaliī subsidium ferrent ” (B. G. 2.26) , while one lent aid to another.
364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing3:—
  1. dōnat corōnās suīs, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
  2. dōnat suōs corōnīs, he presents his men with wreaths.
  3. “ vincula exuere sibi ” (Ov. M. 7.772) , to shake off the leash (from himself).
  4. “ omnīs armīs exuit ” (B. G. 5.51) , he stripped them all of their arms.

Note 1.-- Interdīcō, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Ablative of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing:—

  1. aquā et īgnī alicui interdīcere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular formula for banishment.]
  2. “interdīxit histriōnibus scaenam ” (Suet. Dom. 7) , he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).
  3. fēminīs (dat.) “purpurae ūsū interdīcēmus” (Liv. 34.7) , shall we forbid women the wearing of purple?

Note 2.--The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. Interclūdō and prohibeō sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:—

  1. “ hīsce omnīs aditūs ad Sullam interclūdere ” (Rosc. Am. 110) , to shut these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. “utī commeātū Caesarem interclūderet” (B. G. 1.48) , to shut Cæsar off from supplies.]
  2. hunc (oestrum) “arcēbis pecorī” (Georg. 3.154) , you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. “illum arcuit Galliā” (Phil. 5.37) , he excluded him from Gaul.]
  3. “ sōlstitium pecorī dēfendite ” (Ecl. 7.47) , keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf. “utī sē ā contumēliīs inimīcōrum dēfenderet” (B. C. 1.22) , to defend himself from the slanders of his enemies.]

365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive:—

  1. “nūntiābantur haec eadem Cūriōnī ” (B. C. 2.37) , these same things were announced to Curio. [Active: nūntiābant ( quīdam ) haec eadem Cūriōnī .]
  2. nec docendī Caesaris propinquīs êius spatium datur, nec tribūnīs plēbis suī perīculī dēprecandī facultās tribuitur (id. 1.5), no time is given Cæsar's relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
  3. prōvinciae prīvātīs dēcernuntur (id. 1.6), provinces are voted to private citizens.

INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES

366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows:—
  1. “cēdant arma togae ” (Phil. 2.20) , let arms give place to the gown.
  2. Caesarī respondet, he replies to Cæsar.
  3. Caesarī respondētur, a reply is given to Cæsar (Cæsar is replied to). [Cf. § 372.]
  4. “respondī maximīs crīminibus ” (Phil. 2.36) , I have answered the heaviest charges.
  5. ut ita cuique ēveniat (id. 2.119), that it may so turn out to each.

Note 1.--Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362. a).

Note 2.-- Cēdō, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dative of the person: as,cēdere alicui possessiōne hortōrum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to one the possession of a garden.

a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a. N.2):—

  1. auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuādeō ).
  2. “quis huic reī testis est ” (Quinct. 37) , who testifies (is witness) to this fact?
  3. “is fīnis populātiōnibus fuit ” (Liv. 2.30.9) , this put an end to the raids.

b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377):—

  1. “lēgātus frātrī ” (Mur. 32) , a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his brother).
  2. “ministrī sceleribus ” (Tac. Ann. 6.36) , agents of crime. [Cf. sēditiōnis ministrī (id. 1.17), agents of sedition.]
    3. miseriīs suīs remedium mortem exspectāre (Sall. Cat. 40), to look for death as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. “sōlus meārum miseriārumst remedium” (Ter. Ad. 294) .]

Note.--The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of § 367. a. N.2 and § 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which it serves as an indirect object.

Indirect Object with Special Verbs

367. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,4 take the Dative:—
  1. cūr mihi invidēs, why do you envy me?
  2. mihi parcit atque īgnōscit, he spares and pardons me.
  3. “īgnōsce patriō dolōrī ” (Liv. 3.48) , excuse a father's grief.
  4. “subvenī patriae, opitulāre conlēgae ” (Fam. 10.10.2) , come to the aid of your country, help your colleague.
  5. “ mihi nōn displicet ” (Clu. 144) , it does not displease me.
    6. nōn omnibus serviō; (Att. 13.49), I am not a servant to every man.
  6. “nōn parcam operae ” (Fam. 13.27) , I will spare no pains.
    7. sīc mihi persuāsī; (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.
    mihi Fabius dēbēbit īgnōscere sī minus êius fāmae parcere vidēbor quam anteā cōnsuluī; (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.
    huic legiōnī Caesar cōnfīdēbat maximē; (B. G. 1.40.15), in this legion Cæsar trusted most.

In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus: invidēre, to envy, is literally to look askance at; servīre is to be a slave to; suādēre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.

a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.

Such are iuvō , adiuvō, help; laedō, injure; iubeō, order; dēficiō, fail; dēlectō, please:—

  1. hīc pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculīs nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]

Note 1.-- Fīdō and cōnfīdō take also the Ablative (§ 431): as,multum nātūrā locī “cōnfīdēbant” (B. G. 3.9) , they had great confidence in the strength of their position.

Note 2.--Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are—praestō esse, be on hand (cf. adesse ); mōrem gerere, humor (cf. mōrigerārī ); grātum facere, do a favor (cf. grātificārī ); dictō audiēns esse, be obedient (cf. oboedīre ); “cui fidem habēbat” (B. G. 1.19) , in whom he had confidence (cf. cōnfīdēbat ).

So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are—bene (male, pulchrē, aegrē, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniūriam facere, do injustice to; diem dīcere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere grātiās, express one's thanks; habēre grātiam, feel thankful; referre grātiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be necessary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expēnsum) ferre (esse), credit (charge); honōrem habēre, to pay honor to.

b. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.

Such are adūlor , aemulor , dēspērō , praestōlor , medeor :—

  1. “adūlātus est Antōniō ” (Nep. Att. 8) , he flattered Antony.
  2. “adūlārī Nerōnem ” (Tac. Ann. 16.19) , to flatter Nero.
  3. “ pācem nōn dēspērās ” (Att. 8.15.3) , you do not despair of peace.
  4. “ salūtī dēspērāre vetuit ” (Clu. 68) , he forbade him to despair of safety.

c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning:—5

  1. “ partī cīvium cōnsulunt ” (Off. 1.85) , they consult for a part of the citizens.
  2. “cum tē cōnsuluissem ” (Fam. 11.29) , when I had consulted you.
  3. metuēns puerīs (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
  4. “nec metuunt deōs ” (Ter. Hec. 772) , they fear not even the gods. [So also timeō .]
  5. “prōspicite patriae ” (Cat. 4.3) , have regard for the state.
    6. prōspicere sēdem senectūtī; (Liv. 4.49.14), to provide a habitation for old age. [So also prōvideō .]

d. A few verbal nouns (as īnsidiae, ambush; obtemperātiō, obedience) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs:—

    īnsidiae cōnsulī (Sall. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. īnsidior ).
  1. “obtemperātiō lēgibus ” (Legg. 1.42) , obedience to the laws (cf. obtemperō ).
    2. sibi ipsī respōnsiō; (De Or. 3.207), an answer to himself (cf. respondeō ).

Note.--In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. § 366. a, b).

368. The Dative is used—

    With the impersonals libet ( lubet ), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed:—
    1. “quod mihimaximē lubet ” (Fam. 1.8.3) , what most pleases me.
    2. quasi tibi nōn licēret (id. 6.8), as if you were not permitted.
    With verbs compounded with satis , bene , and male:—
      mihi ipse numquam satisfaciō; (Fam. 1.1), I never satisfy myself.
    1. “optimōvirō maledīcere ” (Deiot. 28) , to speak ill of a most excellent man.
      2. pulchrum est benefacerereī pūblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to benefit the state.

    Note.--These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus,satis officiō meō, satis illōrum voluntātī quī ā mē “hōc petīvērunt factumesse arbitrābor” (Verr. 5.130) , I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me.

    With grātificor , grātulor , nūbō , permittō , plaudō , probō , studeō , supplicō , excellō :—
    1. “Pompêiōsē grātificārī putant ” (Fam. 1.1) , they suppose they are doing Pompey a service.
    2. grātulor tibi, mī Balbe (id. 6.12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
    3. “tibi permittō respondēre ” (N. D. 3.4) , I give you leave to answer.
      4. mihi plaudō ipse domī; (Hor. S. 1.1.66), I applaud myself at home.
    4. “cum inimīcī M. Fontêī vōbīs ac populō Rōmānō minentur, amīcī ac propinquī supplicent vōbīs” (Font. 35) , while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives are beseeching you.

    Note 2.-- Misceō and iungō sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. N.). Haereō usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as, “—haerentemcapitī corōnam” (Hor. S. 1.10.49) , a wreath clinging to the head.

a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending (§ 413. b):—
  1. “contendis Homērō ” (Prop. 1.7.3) , you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum Homērō .]
  2. “placitōne etiam pūgnābis amōrī ” (Aen. 4.38) , will you struggle even against a love that pleases you?
  3. “ tibi certat ” (Ecl. 5.8) , vies with you. [tēcum.]
  4. “differt sermōnī ” (Hor. S. 1.4.48) , differs from prose. [ ā sermōne , § 401.]
  5. “ laterī abdidit ēnsem ” (Aen. 2.553) , buried the sword in his side. [ in latere , § 430.]

For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h.

369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. § 362. a):—

  1. “ cui cum rēx crucem minārētur ” (Tusc. 1.102) , and when the king threatened him with the cross.
  2. “ Crētēnsibus obsidēs imperāvīt ” (Manil. 35) , he exacted hostages of the Cretans.
  3. “ omnia sibi īgnōscere ” (Vell. 2.30) , to pardon one's self everything.
  4. “ Ascaniōne pater Rōmānās invidet arcēs ” (Aen. 4.234) , does the father envy Ascanius his Roman citadels? [With invideō this construction is poetic or late.]

a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained:—

  1. “quī iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgērī aequum cēnset ” (Liv. 40.15.16) , who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a favor.
  2. “singulīs cēnsōribus dēnāriī trecentī imperātī sunt ” (Verr. 2.137) , three hundred denarii were exacted of each censor.
  3. “ Scaevolae concessa est fācundiae virtūs ” (Quint. 12.3.9) , to Scaevola has been granted excellence in oratory.

Indirect Object with Compounds

370. Many verbs compounded with ao, ante , con, in, inter , ob , post, prae , prō , sub , super, and some with circum , admit the Dative of the indirect object:—
  1. “neque enim adsentior eīs ” (Lael. 13) , for I do not agree with them.
  2. “quantum nātūra hominis pecudibus antecēdit ” (Off. 1.105) , so far as man's nature is superior to brutes.
  3. sī sibi ipse cōnsentit (id. 1.5), if he is in accord with himself.
  4. “virtūtēs semper voluptātibus inhaerent ” (Fin. 1.68) , virtues are always connected with pleasures.
  5. omnibus negōtiīs nōn interfuit sōlum sed praefuit (id. 1.6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
  6. “ tempestātī obsequī artis est ” (Fam. 1.9.21) , it is a point of skill to yield to the weather.
  7. “nec umquam succumbet inimīcīs ” (Deiot. 36) , and he will never yield to his foes.
  8. “cum et Brūtus cuilibet ducum praeferendus vidērētur et Vatīnius nūllī nōn esset postferendus ” (Vell. 2.69) , since Brutus seemed worthy of being put before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.

a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains.

Thus in convocat suōs, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperātōrem bellō, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. b).

Note 1.--Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object: as, “—nē offerāmus nōs perīculīs” (Off. 1.83) , that we may not expose ourselves to perils.

Note 2.--The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362, 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.

b. Some compounds of ad , ante , ob , with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 388. b):—6

  1. “ nōs oppūgnat ” (Fam. 1.1) , he opposes us.
    2. quis audeat bene comitātum aggredī; (Phil. 12.25), who would dare encounter a man well attended?
  2. “ mūnus obīre ” (Lael. 7) , to attend to a duty.

c. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative:—

  1. “sī ille obvius eī futūrus nōn erat ” (Mil. 47) , if he was not intending to get in his way.
    2. mihi obviam vēnistī; (Fam. 2.16.3), you came to meet me.

371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition:

  1. “inhaeret in visceribus ” (Tusc. 4.24) , it remains fixed in the vitals.
  2. “homine coniūnctō mēcum ” (Tull. 4) , a man united to me.
  3. “ cum hōc concurrit ipse Eumenēs ” (Nep. Eum. 4.1) , with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together).
  4. “inserite oculōs in cūriam ” (Font. 43) , fix your eyes on the senate-house.
  5. “īgnis quī est ob ōs offūsus ” (Tim. 14) , the fire which is diffused before the sight.
  6. “obicitur contrā istōrum impetūs Macedonia ” (Font. 44) , Macedonia is set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. sī quis vōbīs error “obiectus” (Caec. 5) , if any mistake has been caused you.]
  7. “ in segetem flamma incidit ” (Aen. 2.304) , the fire falls upon the standing corn.

Note.--But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.

372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive (§ 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. § 365):

  1. “ cui parcī potuit ” (Liv. 21.14) , who could be spared?
  2. “nōn modo nōn invidētur illī aetātī vērum etiam favētur ” (Off. 2.45) , that age (youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
  3. “ temporī serviendum est ” (Fam. 9.7) , we must serve the exigency of the occasion.

Note.--In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as, “—cūr invideor” (Hor. A. P. 56) , why am I envied?

Dative of Possession

373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession:—
  1. “est mihi domī pater ” (Ecl. 3.33) , I have a father at home (there is to me).
  2. “ hominī cum deō similitūdō est ” (Legg. 1.25) , man has a likeness to God.
    3. quibus opēs nūllae sunt (Sall. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.

Note.--The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as,—liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one's else): est mihi liber, I HAVE a book (among other things).

a. With nōmen est , and similar expressions, the name is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominative is also common:—

  1. (1) “cui Āfricānō fuit cōgnōmen” (Liv. 25.2) , whose (to whom) surname was Africanus.
  2. puerō ab inopiā Egeriō inditum nōmen (id. 1.34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty.
  3. (2) puerō nōmen est Mārcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
  4. “cui nōmen Arethūsa ” (Verr. 4.118) , [a fount] called Arethusa.

Note.--In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf. § 343. d): as,—Q. “Metellō Macedonicī nōmen inditum est” (Vell. 1.11) , to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonicus was given.

b. Dēsum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regularly has the ablative):—

  1. “hōc ūnum Caesarī dēfuit ” (B.G. 4.26) , this only was lacking to Cæsar.
  2. “quid huic abesse poterit ” (De Or. 1.48) , what can be wanting to him?

Dative of the Agent

374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom the necessity rests:—
  1. “haec vōbīs prōvincia est dēfendenda ” (Manil. 14) , this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you).
  2. mihi est pūgnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me: cf. mihi est liber, I have a book, § 373. N.).

a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196).

Note 1.--The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405) is sometimes used with the Second Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired:—

  1. “ quibus est ā vōbīs cōnsulendum” (Manil. 6) , for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vōbīs , would have been ambiguous.]
  2. “ rem ab omnibus vōbīs prōvidendam ” (Rab. 4) , that the matter must be attended to by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.]

Note 2.--The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Possession or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 376).

375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect participles (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb:—

  1. “ mihi dēlīberātum et cōnstitūtum est ” (Leg. Agr. 1.25) , I have deliberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
  2. “ mihi rēs prōvīsa est ” (Verr. 4.91) , the matter has been provided for by me.
  3. “sīc dissimillimīs bēstiolīs commūniter cibus quaeritur ” (N. D. 2.123) , so by very different creatures food is sought in common.

a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb:—

  1. “neque cernitur ūllī ” (Aen. 1.440) , nor is seen by any.
  2. fēlīx est dicta sorōrī (Ov. Fast. 3.1.597), she was called happy by her sister.
  3. “Aelia Paetina Narcissō fovēbātur ” (Tac. Ann. 12.1) , Ælia Pœtina was favored by Narcissus.

b. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem:—

  1. vidētur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
  2. “ dīs aliter vīsum [est] ” (Aen. 2.428) , it seemed otherwise to the gods.
  3. “videor mihi perspicere ipsīus animum ” (Fam. 4.13.5) , I seem (to myself) to see the soul of the man himself.

Note.--The verb probāre, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:—

  1. “haec sententia et illī et nōbīs probābātur ” (Fam. 1.7.5) , this view met both his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me).
  2. “hōc cōnsilium plērīsque nōn probābātur ” (B. C. 1.72) , this plan was not approved by the majority. [But also, cōnsilium ā cūnctīs probābātur (id. 1.74).]

Dative of Reference

376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference).

The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage,7 as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.

  1. tibi arās (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
  2. tuās rēs tibi habētō; (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula of divorce).
  3. laudāvit mihi frātrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; laudāvit frātrem meum would imply no such motive).
    4. meritōs mactāvit honōrēs, taurum Neptūnō, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollō; (Aen. 3.118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo.

Note.--In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.

377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word:

  1. “iter Poenīs vel corporibus suīs obstruere ” (Cat. M. 75) , to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.).
  2. “sē in cōnspectum nautīs dedit ” (Verr. 5.86) , he put himself in sight of the sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
  3. versātur mihi ante oculōs (id. 5.123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me before the eyes).

378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.

This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,8 but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used—

    Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me. etc.):—
    1. “Platō mihiūnus īnstar est centum mīlium ” (Brut. 191) , in my opinion (to me) Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
    2. “erit ille mihi semper deus ” (Ecl. 1.7) , he will always be a god to me (in my regard).
    3. “quae est ista servitūs tam clārō hominī” (Par. 41) , what is that slavery according to the view of this distinguished man?
    Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural:—
      oppidum prīmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Ēpīrō; (B. C. 3.80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
    1. “laevā parte sinum intrantī” (Liv. 26.26) , on the left as you sail up the gulf (to one entering).
    2. “est urbeēgressīstumulus ” (Aen. 2.713) , there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out).

    Note.--The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by vōlēns , volēns (participles of nōlō, volō), or by some similar word:—

    1. “ut quibusque belluminvītīs autcupientibus erat ” (Tac. Ann. 1.59) , as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
    2. “ut mīlitibuslabōs volentibus esset ” (Iug. 100) , that the soldiers might assume the task willingly.
379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations:—
  1. “quō mihi fortūnam ” (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12) , of what use to me is fortune?
  2. “unde mihi lapidem ” (Hor. S. 2.7.116) , where can I get a stone?
  3. quō tibi, Tillī; (id. 1.6.24), what use for you, Tillius?

a. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:

  1. ei (hei) “mihi” (Aen. 2.274) , ah me!
  2. “vae victīs ” (Liv. 5.48) , woe to the conquered.
  3. em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. § 380.]

Note.--To express FOR—meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of—the ablative with prō is used:—

    prō patriā morī; (Hor. Od. 3.2.13), to die for one's country.
  1. ego ībō prō tē (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.

Ethical Dative

380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated.9

This construction is called the Ethical Dative.10 It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Reference.

  1. “quid mihi Celsus agit ” (Hor. Ep. 1.3.15) , pray what is Celsus doing?
  2. suō sibi servit patrī; (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.
  3. “at tibi repente venit mihi Canīnius ” (Fam. 9.2) , but, look you, of a sudden comes to me Caninius.
    4. hem tibi talentum argentī; (Pl. Truc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.
  4. quid tibi vīs, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself)?

Dative of Separation

381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 401).

Such are compounds of ab , dē , ex , and a few of ad :—

  1. “aureum eī dētrāxit amiculum ” (N. D. 3.83) , he took from him his cloak of gold.
  2. “hunc mihi terrōrem ēripe ” (Cat. 1.18) , take from me this terror.
  3. “vītam adulēscentibus vīs aufert ” (Cat. M. 71) , violence deprives young men of life.
    4. nihil enim tibi dētrāxit senātus (Fam. 1.5B), for the senate has taken nothing from you.
    nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō; (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.

Note.--The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative

a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a preposition—thus generally with names of things (§ 426. 1):—

  1. “illum ex perīculō ēripuit ” (B. G. 4.12) , he dragged him out of danger.

Note.--Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as, “—mihi praeda dē manibus ēripitur” (Verr. 2.1.142) , the booty is wrested from my hands.

Dative of the Purpose or End

382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected.

This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows:—

    The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected:—
    1. “reī pūblicaeclādī sunt ” (Iug. 85.43) , they are ruin to the state (they are for a disaster to the state).
    2. “māgnōūsuīnostrīs fuit ” (B. G. 4.25) , it was of great service to our men (to our men for great use).
    3. tertiam aciem nostrīssubsidiō mīsit (id. 1.52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men.
    4. suīssalūtī fuit (id. 7.50), he was the salvation of his men.
    5. “ēvēnit facile quod dīs cordīesset ” (Liv. 1.39) , that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).

    Note 1.--This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum . The noun expressing the end for which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjective, except one of degree ( māgnus , minor, etc.), or by a genitive.

    Note 2.--The word frūgī used as an adjective is a dative of this kind:—

    1. “cōgis mē dīcere inimīcum Frūgī” (Font. 39) , you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
    2. “hominēs satis fortēs et plānē frūgī” (Verr. 3.67) , men brave enough and thoroughly honest. Cf. erō frūgī bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for something. [See § 122. b.]
    The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry :—
    1. “locumcastrīs dēligit ” (B. G. 7.16) , he selects a site for a camp.
    2. receptuī canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).
    3. “receptuī sīgnum ” (Phil. 13.15) , the signal for retreat.
    4. “optāvit locum rēgnō” (Aen. 3.109) , he chose a place for a kingdom.
    5. “locumīnsidiīscircumspectāre ” (Liv. 21.53) , to look about for a place for an ambush. [Cf. locumsēditiōnisquaerere (id. 3.46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. b.

Dative with Adjectives

383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends.

Note.--The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.

384. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites:11

  1. “nihil est tam nātūrae aptum ” (Lael. 17) , nothing is so fitted to nature.
    2. nihil difficile amantī putō; (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
  2. “ castrīs idōneum locum dēlēgit ” (B. G. 1.49) , he selected a place suitable for a camp.
    3. tribūnī nōbīs sunt amīcī; (Q. Fr. 1.2.16), the tribunes are friendly to us.
  3. “esse propitius potest nēminī ” (N. D. 1.124) , he can be gracious to nobody.
  4. māgnīs autem virīs prosperae semper omnēs rēs (id. 2.167), but to great men everything is always favorable.
  5. “sēdēs huic nostrō nōn importūna sermōnī ” (De Or. 3.18) , a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours.
  6. “cui fundō erat affīnis M. Tullius ” (Tull. 14) , to which estate Marcus Tullius was next neighbor.
  7. “convenienter nātūrae vīvere ” (Off. 3.13) , to live in accordance with nature (ὁμολογουμένως τῇ φύσει).

Note 1.--So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with īdem : as, “—invītum quī servat idem facit occīdentī” (Hor. A. P. 467) , he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him.

Note 2.-- Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also the adverbs aequē , pariter , similiter , etc. The pronoun īdem has regularly atque or a relative:—

    sī parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty).
    tē suspicor eīsdem rēbus quibus mē ipsum commovērī; (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am.

385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected:—

a. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons:—

  1. aptus ad rem mīlitārem, fit for a soldier's duty.
  2. “locus ad īnsidiās aptior ” (Mil. 53) , a place fitter for lying in wait.
    3. nōbīs ūtile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.

b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or ergā :—

  1. “cōmis in uxōrem ” (Hor. Ep. 2.2.133) , kind to his wife.
  2. “dīvīna bonitās ergā hominēs ” (N. D. 2.60) , the divine goodness towards men.
  3. “dē benevolentiā quam quisque habeat ergā nōs ” (Off. 1.47) , in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us.
  4. “grātiōrem mē esse in tē ” (Fam. 11.10) , that I am more grateful to you.

c. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive:—12

  1. “quod ut illī proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optāre dēbētis ” (Manil. 48) , which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
  2. fuit hōc quondam proprium populī Rōmānī (id. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]
    3. cum utrīque sīs maximē necessārius (Att. 9.7A), since you are especially bound to both. [Dative.]
  3. “prōcūrātor aequē utrīusque necessārius ” (Quinct. 86) , an agent alike closely connected with both. [Genitive.]

    The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns:—
    1. amīcus Cicerōnī, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicerōnisamīcus, a friend of Cicero; and even, Cicerōnisamīcissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
    2. “crēticus etêius aequālis paean ” (Or. 215) , the cretic and its equivalent the pœan.
    3. “hī erant affīnēs istīus” (Verr. 2.36) , these were this man's fellows.
    After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular ( meī , tuī , etc.), and also in vērī similis, probable:—
    1. “dominī similis es ” (Ter. Eun. 496) , you're like your master (your master's like).
    2. “ut essēmus similēs deōrum” (N. D. 1.91) , that we might be like the gods.
    3. “est similismâiōrum suom ” (Ter. Ad. 411) , he's like his ancestors.
    4. “patris similis esse ” (Off. 1.121) , to be like his father.
      5. sīmia quam similis turpissima bēstia nōbīs (N. D. 1.97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
    5. sī enim hōcillī simile sit, est illud huic (id. 1.90), for if this is like that, that is like this.

Note.--The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in § 349, but possessive (cf. § 343).

For the Dative or Accusative with propior , proximus , propius , proximē , see § 432. a.

ACCUSATIVE CASE

386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative (run a race, fight a battle, see § 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. § 273. N.1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see § 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. § 265.3).13). It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case.

The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows:

I. Primary Object: 1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 387. a).
2. Effect of the Action Thing produced (§ 387. a). Cognate Accusative (§ 390).
II. Two Accusatives: 1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (§ 393).
2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 396).
3. Of Concealing (§ 396. c).
III. Idiomatic Uses: 1. Adverbial (§ 397. a).
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 397. b).
3. Of Extent and Duration (§§ 423, 425).
4. Of Exclamation (§ 397. d).
5. Subject of Infinitive (§ 397. e).

Direct Object

387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (§ 274).

a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb:—

  1. (1) Brūtus Caesarem interfēcit, Brutus killed Cæsar.
  2. (2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pūgnāre, to fight a battle, § 390.]

Note.--There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus timeō, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimīcum timeō, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in nōlī timēre, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,—Helvētiōs superāvērunt Rōmānī, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superābat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as,—rīdēs, you are laughing; but mē rīdēs, you're laughing at me.

b. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275):—

  1. Brūtus Caesarem interfēcit, Brutus killed Cæsar.
  2. Caesar ā Brūtō interfectus est, Cæsar was killed by Brutus.
  3. domum aedificat, he builds a house.
  4. domus aedificātur, the house is building (being built).

388. Certain special verbs require notice.

a. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive:—

  1. “meum cāsum lūctumque doluērunt ” (Sest. 145) , they grieved at my calamity and sorrow.
  2. “ sī nōn Acrisium rīsissent Iuppiter et Venus ” (Hor. Od. 3.16.5) , if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
    3. rīdētur ab omnī conventū; (Hor. S. 1.7.22), he is laughed at by the whole assembly.

For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see § 390. a.

Note.--Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:—

  1. “gemēnsīgnōminiam ” (Georg. 3.226) , groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleō .]
  2. “festīnāre fugam ” (Aen. 4.575) , to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelerō .]
  3. “cōmptōsārsit crīnīs ” (Hor. Od. 4.9.13) , she burned with love for his well-combed locks. [Cf. adamō .]
b. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum , trāns , and praeter , and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. § 370. b):—
  1. mortem obīre, to die (to meet death).
  2. “ cōnsulātum ineunt ” (Liv. 2.28) , they enter upon the consulship.
    3. nēminem convēnī; (Fam. 9.14), I met no one.
  3. “ sī īnsulam adīsset ” (B. G. 4.20) , if he should go to the island.
  4. trānsīre flūmen (id. 2.23), to cross the river (cf. § 395).
  5. “cīvēs quī circumstant senātum ” (Cat. 1.21) , the citizens who stand about the senate.

Note.--Among such verbs are some compounds of ad , in, per, and sub .

c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet , dēdecet , dēlectat , iuvat , oportet , fallit , fugit , praeterit :—

  1. ita ut vōs decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.
  2. “ mē pedibus dēlectat claudere verba ” (Hor. S. 2.1.28) , my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
  3. nisi mē fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).
  4. “iūvit mē tibi tuās litterās prōfuisse ” (Fam. 5.21.3) , it pleased me that your literary studies had profited you.
  5. “ tē nōn praeterit ” (Fam. 1.8.2) , it does not escape your notice.

Note 1.--So after later in poetry and post-classical prose: as,latet plērōsque (Plin. N. H. 2.82), it is unknown to most persons.

Note 2.--These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signification. Hence most of them are also used personally.

Note 3.-- Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:—

  1. “ita nōbīs decet ” (Ter. Ad. 928) , thus it befits us.
  2. hostīque Rōma latet (Sil. It. 12.614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.

d. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are:—

  1. ferīre foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim).
    2. vincere iūdicium (spōnsiōnem, rem, hōc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter , Aen. 6.688.]
  2. “ aequor nāvigāre ” (Aen. 1.67) , to sail the sea. [As if it were trānsīre , § 388. b.]
  3. maria aspera iūrō; (id. 6.351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. 6.324). [The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.]
  4. noctīs dormīre, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).

Note 1.--These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 390).

Note 2.--In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative:—

  1. quid tibi istanc tāctiō est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf. tangō.]
  2. “mīrābundī bēstiam ” (Ap. Met. 4.16) , full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. mīror .]
  3. “vītābundus castra ” (Liv. 25.13) , trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vītō .]

389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, having their natural object in the ablative with dē (§ 273. N. 2):—

  1. “priusquam Pompōnius dē êius adventū cōgnōsceret ” (B. C. 3.101) , before Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. êius adventū cōgnitō, his arrival being discovered.]

For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse , see § 500. 3.

Cognate Accusative

390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.

This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification:—

  1. “tūtiōrem vītam vīvere ” (Verr. 2.118) , to live a safer life.
  2. “tertiam iam aetātem hominum vīvēbat ” (Cat. M. 31) , he was now living the third generation of men.
  3. servitūtem servīre, to be in slavery.
  4. coīre societātem, to [go together and] form an alliance.

a. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality:—

  1. “ vīnum redolēns ” (Phil. 2.63) , smelling [of] wine.
  2. “ herbam mella sapiunt ” (Plin. H. N. 11.18) , the honey tastes [of] grass.
  3. “olēre malitiam ” (Rosc. Com. 20) , to have the odor of malice.
  4. “Cordubae nātīs poētīs, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrīnum ” (Arch. 26) , to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and foreign accent.

b. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets:—

  1. “huic errōrī similem [errōrem] īnsānīre ” (Hor. S. 2.3.62) , to suffer a delusion like this.
  2. saltāre Cyclōpa (id. 1.5.63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
  3. “ Bacchānālia vīvere ” (Iuv. 2.3) , to live in revellings.
  4. “ Amaryllida resonāre ” (Ecl. 1.5) , to reëcho [the name of] Amaryllis.
  5. “intonuit laevum ” (Aen. 2.693) , it thundered on the left.
  6. “ dulce rīdentem, dulce loquentem ” (Hor. Od. 1.22.23) , sweetly smiling, sweetly prattling.
  7. “ acerba tuēns ” (Aen. 9.794) , looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. “to look daggers.”]
  8. torvum clāmat (id. 7.399), he cries harshly.

c. A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a):—

  1. “Empedoclēs multa alia peccat ” (N. D. 1.29) , Empedocles commits many other errors.
    2. ego illud adsentior Theophrastō; (De Or. 3.184), in this I agree with Theophrastus.
    multum tē ista fefellit opīniō; (Verr. 2.1.88), you were much deceived in this expectation (this expectation deceived you much).
  2. plūs valeō, I have more strength.
  3. plūrimum potest, he is strongest.
  4. “ quid mē ista laedunt ” (Leg. Agr. 2.32) , what harm do those things do me?
  5. hōc tē moneō, I give you this warning (cf. d. N.1).
  6. id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. N.1).
  7. quid moror, why do I delay?
    8. quae hominēs arant, nāvigant, aedificant (Sall. Cat. 2.7), what men do in ploughing, sailing, and building.

d. So in many common phrases:—

  1. “sī quid ille sē velit ” (B. G. 1.34) , if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything).
  2. “numquid, Geta, aliud mē vīs ” (Ter. Ph. 151) , can I do anything more for you, Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form of leave-taking.]
    3. quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hōc erat quod (Aen. 2.664), was it for this that, etc.?]

Note 1.--In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some other construction:—

  1. inhōc eōdempeccat, he errs in this same point.
  2. bonīsrēbuslaetārī, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also:in, dē , or ex .]
  3. dē testāmentōmonēre, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive, § 351.]
  4. officī admonēre, to remind one of his duty. [Also: dē officiō .]

Note 2.--In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as, multum , plūs, plūrimum; plērumque, for the most part, generally; cēterum , cētera, for the rest, otherwise, but; prīmum, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why; facile, easily. So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.

TWO ACCUSATIVES

391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object.

This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or (2) a Secondary Object.

Predicate Accusative

392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative.

393. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object:—

  1. “ō Spartace, quem enim tē potius appellem ” (Phil. 13.22) , O Spartacus, for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?
  2. Cicerōnem cōnsulem creāre, to elect Cicero consul.
  3. “mē augurem nōmināvērunt ” (Phil. 2.4) , they nominated me for augur.
  4. “cum grātiās ageret quod sē cōnsulem fēcisset ” (De Or. 2.268) , when he thanked him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).
  5. “ hominem prae sē nēminem putāvit ” (Rosc. Am. 135) , he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself.
  6. “ ducem sē praebuit ” (Vat. 33) , he offered himself as a leader.

Note.--The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, “—hominēs mītīs reddidit et mānsuētōs” (Inv. 1.2) , has made men mild and gentle.

a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284):—

  1. “ rēx ab suīs appellātur ” (B. G. 8.4) , he is called king by his subjects. [Active<*> suī eum rēgem appellant.]

Secondary Object

394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb.

395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition:—

  1. “Caesar Germānōs flūmen trāicit ” (B. C. 1.83) , Cæsar throws the Germans across the river.
  2. idem iūs iūrandum adigit Afrānium (id. 1.76), he exacts the same oath from Afranius.
  3. quōs Pompêius omnia sua praesidia circumdūxit (id. 3.61), whom Pompey conducted through all his garrison.

Note 1.--This construction is common only with trādūcō , trāiciō , and trānsportō . The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trāns , and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used:—

  1. “dōnec rēs suās trāns Halyn flūmen trāicerent ” (Liv. 38.25) , till they should get their possessions across the river Halys.
  2. （exercitus) Padō trāiectus Cremōnam (id. 21.56), the army was conveyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 429. a).

Note 2.--The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as, “—Belgae Rhēnum trāductī sunt” (B. G. 2.4) , the Belgians were led over the Rhine.

Note 3.--The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.

But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,—the same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So trāiciō comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):—

  1. gladiō hominem trāiēcit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iaciō has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trāns , and to tell the manner of the act.]
  2. Rhodanum trāiēcit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iaciō has become simply a verb of motion, and trāiciō is hardly distinguishable from trānseō .]

In these examples hominem and Rhodanum , which would be secondary objects if trāiēcit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative:—

  1. homō trāiectus est gladiō, the man was pierced with a sword.
  2. Rhodanus trāiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.

The poetical “trāiectus lōra” (Aen. 2.273) , pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions: (1) eum trāiēcit lōra, he rove thongs through him,14 and (2) eum trāiēcit lōrīs, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former ( lōra ) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter ( eum ) is made the subject.

396. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object):—

  1. mē sententiam rogāvit, he asked me my opinion.
  2. “ ōtium dīvōs rogat ” (Hor. Od. 2.16.1) , he prays the gods for rest.
  3. “ haec praetōrem postulābās ” (Tull. 39) , you demanded this of the prœtor.
  4. “ aedīlīs populum rogāre ” (Liv. 6.42) , to ask the people [to elect] œdiles.
  5. docēre puerōs elementa, to teach children their A B C's.

Note.--This construction is found in classical authors with ōrō , poscō , reposcō , rogō , interrogō , flāgitō , doceō .

a. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, petō ( ab ), quaerō (ex, ab, dē); usually poscō ( ab ), flāgitō ( ab ), postulō ( ab ), and occasionally others:—

  1. “pācem ab Rōmānīs petiērunt ” (B. G. 2.13) , they sought peace from the Romans.
  2. “quod quaesīvit ex mē P. Apulêius ” (Phil. 6.1) , what Publius Apuleius asked of me.

b. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N.2):—

  1. Caesar sententiam rogātus est, Cæsar was asked his opinion.
  2. “ id ab eō flāgitābātur ” (B. C. 1.71) , this was urgently demanded of him.

Note.--The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogō , and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs:—

    fuerant hōc rogātī; (Cael. 64), they had been asked this.
  1. “poscor meum Laelapa ” (Ov. M. 7.771) , I am asked for my Lælaps.
    2. Cicerō cūncta ēdoctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.

But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as, “—nē postulantur quidem vīrēs ā senectüte” (Cat. M. 34) , strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).

c. The verb cēlō, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateō, lie hid, an accusative of the person:—

    nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem T. Ampī; (Fam. 2.16.3), I did not conceal from you the talk of Titus Ampius.
  1. “nec latuēre dolī frātrem Iūnōnis ” (Aen. 1.130) , nor did the wiles of Juno escape the notice of her brother.

Note 1.--The accusative of the person with lateō is late or poetical (§ 388. c. N.1).

Note 2.--All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the wavering meaning of the verbs. Thus doceō means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person; cēlō , to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rogō , to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary.

Idiomatic Uses

397. The Accusative has the following special uses:—

a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative):—

  1. id temporis, at that time; id (istuc) aetātis, at that age.
  2. id (quod) genus, of that (what） sort (perhaps originally nominative).
  3. meam vicem, on my part.
  4. bonam partem, in a great measure; maximam partem, for the most part.
  5. virīle (muliebre) secus, of the male (female） sex (probably originally in apposition).
  6. quod sī, but if (as to which, if); quod nisi, if not.

b. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected:—

  1. “ caput nectentur ” (Aen. 5.309) , their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound about the head).
  2. ārdentīs oculōs suffectī sanguine et īgnī; (id. 2.210), their glaring eyes bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).
  3. nūda genū (id. 1.320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).
  4. “ femur trāgulā ictus ” (Liv. 21.7.10) , wounded in the thigh by a dart.

Note.--This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.

c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 156. a):

  1. “inūtile ferrum cingitur ” (Aen. 2.510) , he girds on the useless steel.
  2. nodō sinūs collēcta fluentīs (id. 1.320), having her flowing folds gathered in a knot.
  3. umerōs īnsternor pelle leōnis (id. 2.722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's skin.
  4. “prōtinus induitur faciem cultumque Diānae ” (Ov. M. 2.425) , forthwith she assumes the shape and garb of Diana.

d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations:—

    ō fortūnātam rem pūblicam, O fortunate republic! [Cf. ō fortūnāta mor<*> (Phil. 14.31), oh, happy death! (§ 339. a).]
  1. “ō mē īnfēlīcem ” (Mil. 102) , oh, unhappy I!
  2. mē miserum, ah, wretched me!
  3. “ēn quattuor ārās ” (Ecl. 5.65) , lo, four altars!
  4. ellum (=em illum), there he is! [Cf. § 146. a. N.2.]
  5. eccōs (=ecce eōs), there they are, look at them!
  6. prō deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods)!
  7. “hōcine saeclum ” (Ter. Ad. 304) , O this generation!
  8. “huncine hominem ” (Verr. 5.62) , this man, good heavens!

Note 1.--Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.

Note 2.--The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusatives. Such are:—

  1. salūtem (sc. dīcit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
  2. mē dīus fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith).
  3. “unde mihī lapidem ” (Hor. S. 2.7.116) , where can I get a stone?
  4. “quō mihi fortūnam ” (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12) , of what use to me is fortune? [No verb thought of.]

e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative:—

  1. “intellegō tē sapere ” (Fam. 7.32.3) , I perceive that you are wise.
  2. “ eās rēs iactārī nōlēbat ” (B. G. 1.18) , he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed.

Note.--This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (§ 580).

f. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause:—

  1. “dēserunt tribūnal ... manūs intentantēs, causam discordiae et initium armōrum ” (Tac. Ann. 1.27) , they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists,— a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.

Note.--This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,Eumenem prōdidēre Antiochō, “pācis mercēdem” (Sall. Ep. Mith. 8) , they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]

For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427.2; for the Accusative of Duration of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 220.

ABLATIVE CASE

398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms of three cases,—the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the development of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases ā parte dexterā , ON the right; quam ob causam , FROM which cause; ad fāmam , AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -ē of the fifth declension (§ 96), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. N.1, 92. f, 214. a. N.).

The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached)15 is set forth in the following table:—

I. Ablative Proper (from） (Separative): 1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§ 400).
2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (§ 403).
3. Of Cause ( labōrō , exsiliō , etc.) (§ 404).
4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 405).
5. Of Comparison (THAN) (§ 406).
II. Instrumental Ablative (with): 1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§ 408 ff.).
2. Of Object of the Deponents ūtor etc. (§ 410).
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum ) (§ 413).
4. Of Degree of Difference (§ 414).
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§ 415).
6. Of Price and Exchange (§ 416).
7. Of Specification (§ 418).
8. Ablative Absolute (§ 419).
III. Locative Ablative (in, on, at): 1. Of Place where (commonly with in) (§ 421).
2. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 423).

399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:—

  1. līberāre metū, to deliver from fear.
  2. excultus doctrīnā, trained in learning.
  3. hōc ipsō tempore, at this very time.
  4. caecus avāritiā, blind with avarice.
  5. occīsus gladiō, slain by the sword.

USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER

Ablative of Separation

400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative.

401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex):—

  1. “ oculīs sē prīvāvit ” (Fin. 5.87) , he deprived himself of eyes.
  2. “ omnī Galliā Rōmānīs interdīcit ” (B. G. 1.46) , he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.
  3. “eī aquā et īgnī interdīcitur ” (Vell. 2.45) , he is debarred the use of fire and water. [The regular formula of banishment.]
  4. “ voluptātibus carēre ” (Cat. M. 7) , to lack enjoyments.
  5. “nōn egeō medicīnā ” (Lael. 10) , I want no physic.
  6. “levāmur superstitiōne, līberāmur mortis metū ” (Fin. 1.63) , we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
  7. “solūtī ā cupiditātibus ” (Leg. Agr. 1.27) , freed from desires.
  8. “multōs ex hīs incommodīs pecūniā sē līberāsse ” (Verr. 5.23) , that many have freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.

For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see § 356. N.

402. Verbs compounded with ā, ab , dē , ex , (1) take the simple Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a preposition (§ 426. 1):—

  1. (1) “cōnātū dēsistere” (B. G. 1.8) , to desist from the attempt.
  2. “dēsine commūnibus locīs ” (Acad. 2.80) , quit commonplaces.
  3. abīre magistrātū, to leave one's office.
  4. abstinēre iniūriā, to refrain from wrong.
  5. (2) ā “prōpositō aberrāre” (Fin. 5.83) , to wander from the point.
  6. “dē prōvinciā dēcēdere ” (Verr. 2.48) , to withdraw from one's province.
  7. ab iūre abīre (id. 2.114), to go outside of the law.
  8. “ex cīvitāte excessēre ” (B. G. 6.8) , they departed from the state. [But cf. fīnibus suīs excesserant (id. 4.18), they had left their own territory.]
    9. ā māgnō dēmissum nōmen Iūlō; (Aen. 1.288), a name descended (sent down) from great Iulus.

For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428. f.

a. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative:—

  1. “urbs nūda praesidiō ” (Att. 7.13) , the city naked of defence.
  2. “immūnis mīlitiā ” (Liv. 1.43) , free of military service.
  3. plēbs orba tribūnīs (Leg. 3.9), the people deprived of tribunes.

Note.--A preposition sometimes occurs:—

    ā culpā vacuus (Sall. Cat. 14), free from blame.
  1. “līberī ā dēliciīs ” (Leg. Agr. 1.27) , free from luxuries.
  2. “Messāna ab hīs rēbus vacua atque nūda est ” (Verr. 4.3) , Messana is empty and bare of these things.

For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a.

Ablative of Source and Material

403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists:—

    Source:—
    1. “Rhēnus oritur ex Lepontiīs” (B. G. 4.10) , the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii.
    2. “ab hīs sermō oritur ” (Lael. 5) , the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
    3. “cûius ratiōnis vim atque ūtilitātemex illō caelestī Epicūrīvolūmineaccēpimus ” (N. D. 1.43) , of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
    4. “suāvitātem odōrum quī afflārentur ē flōribus” (Cat. M. 59) , the sweetness of the odors which breathed from the flowers.
    Material:—
    1. “erat tōtus ex fraude etmendāciō factus ” (Clu. 72) , he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood.
    2. “valvās māgnificentiōrēs,ex aurō atqueeboreperfectiōrēs ” (Verr. 4.124) , more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.
    3. “factum dē cautibus antrum ” (Ov. M. 1.575) , a cave formed of rocks.
    4. “templum dē marmore pōnam ” (Georg. 3.13) , I'll build a temple of marble.

    Note 1.--In poetry the preposition is often omitted.

    Note 2.--The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see § 344.

a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla tive of Source, generally without a preposition:—16
  1. “ Iove nātus et Mâiā ” (N. D. 3.56) , son of Jupiter and Maia.
  2. “ēdite rēgibus ” (Hor. Od. 1.1.1) , descendant of kings.
  3. “quō sanguine crētus ” (Aen. 2.74) , born of what blood.
  4. “genitae Pandīone ” (Ov. M. 6.666) , daughters of Pandion.

Note 1.--A preposition (ab, dē, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors:—

    ex mē hīc nātus nōn est sed ex frātre meō; (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but my brother's (not born from me, etc.).
  1. “cum ex utrāque [uxōre] fīlius nātus esset ” (De Or. 1.183) , each wife having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
  2. “Bēlus et omnēs ā Bēlō ” (Aen. 1.730) , Belus and all his descendants.

Note 2.--Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as,— dēsīderāvit C. Flegīnātem Placentiā , A. “Grānium Puteolīs” (B. C. 3.71) , he lost Caius Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.

Note 3.--The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as,— Q. “Verrem Rōmiliā” (Verr. 1.23) , Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.

b. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposition. Such are cōnstāre , cōnsistere , and continērī .17 But with cōnstāre , ex is more common:—

  1. “domūs amoenitās nōn aedificiō sed silvā cōnstābat ” (Nep. Att. 13) , the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.
  2. “ ex animō cōnstāmus et corpore ” (Fin. 4.19) , we consist of soul and body.
  3. “vīta corpore et spīritū continētur ” (Marc. 28) , life consists of body and spirit.

c. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere , fierī , and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:—

  1. “quid hōc homine faciātis ” (Verr. 2.1.42) , what are you going to do with this man?
  2. “quid Tulliolā meā fīet ” (Fam. 14.4.3) , what will become of my dear Tullia ?
  3. “quid tē futūrum est ” (Verr. 2.155) , what will become of you?

d. The Ablative of Material with ex , and in poetry without a preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun:—

  1. “nōn pauca pōcula ex aurō ” (Verr. 4.62) , not a few cups of gold.
  2. “ scopulīs pendentibus antrum ” (Aen. 1.166) , a cave of hanging rocks.

For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 346. c.

Ablative of Cause

404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause:—18

  1. “ neglegentiā plectimur ” (Lael. 85) , we are chastised for negligence.
  2. “gubernātōris ars ūtilitāte nōn arte laudātur ” (Fin. 1.42) , the pilot s skill is praised for its service, not its skill.
  3. certīs dē causīs, for cogent reasons.
  4. “ ex vulnere aeger ” (Rep. 2.38) , disabled by (from) a wound.
  5. “mare ā sōle lucet ” (Acad. 2.105) , the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).

a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labōrō (also with ex ), exsiliō , exsultō , triumphō , lacrimō , ārdeō :—

  1. “doleō tē aliīs malīs labōrāre ” (Fam. 4.3) , I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. [Cf. “ ex aere aliēnō labōrāre” (B. C. 3.22) , to labor under debt (from another's money).]
  2. “exsultāre laetitiā, triumphāre gaudiō coepit ” (Clu. 14) , she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy.
  3. “exsiluī gaudiō ” (Fam. 16.16) , I jumped for joy. [Cf. “lacrimō gaudiō” (Ter. Ad. 409) , I weep for joy.]
  4. “ārdēre dolōre et īrā ” (Att. 2.19.5) , to be on fire with pain and anger.

For gaudeō and glōrior , see § 431.

b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by ob 19 or propter with the accusative:—

  1. “nōn ob praedam aut spoliandī cupīdine ” (Tac. H. 1.63) , not for booty or through lust of plunder.
  2. “amīcitia ex sē et propter sē expetenda ” (Fin. 2.83) , friendship must be sought of and for itself.

Note.--But these constructions are often confused: as, “—pārēre lēgibus propter metum” (Par. 34) , to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to “the terrors of the law,” and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.]

c. The ablatives causā and grātiā, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement:—

    eā causā, on account of this; quā grātiā; (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?
  1. meā causā, for my sake; meā grātiā; (Plaut.), for my sake.
  2. ex meā et reī pūblicae causā, for my own sake and the republic's.
    3. praedictiōnis causā; (N. D. 3.5), by way of prophecy.
  3. exemplī grātiā; (verbī grātiā), for example.
  4. suī pūrgāndī grātiā, for the sake of clearing themselves.

Note.--But grātiā with possessives in this use is rare.

Ablative of Agent

405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with ā or ab :—

  1. “laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs ” (Hor. S. 1.2.11) , he is praised by these, blamed by those.
  2. “ ab animō tuō quidquid agitur id agitur ā tē ” (Tusc. 1.52) , whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself.
  3. “ ā fīliīs in iūdicium vocātus est ” (Cat. M. 22) , he was brought to trial by his sons.
  4. cum ā cūnctō cōnsessū plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great applause had been given by the whole audience.
  5. “nē virtūs ab audāciā vincerētur ” (Sest. 92) , that valor might not be overborne by audacity. [ Audācia is in a manner personified.]

Note 1.--This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action.

Note 2.--The ablative of the agent (which requires ā or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (§ 409). Thus occīsus gladiō, slain by a sword; but, occīsus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.

Note 3.--The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.

a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intransitive verbs that have a passive sense:—

  1. perīre ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.

b. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by operā with a genitive or possessive:—

  1. “ ab explōrātōribus certior factus est ” (B. G. 1.21) , he was informed by scouts (in person). But,—
  2. per explōrātōrēs Caesar certior factus est (id. 1.12), Cæsar was informed by (means of) scouts.
  3. ēlautae operā Neptūnī (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of Neptune.
    4. “nōn meā operā ēvēnit ” (Ter. Hec. 228) , it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). [Cf. êius operā , B. G. 5.27.]

Note 1.--The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the ablative of agent, especially in military phrases: as, “—haec excubitōribus tenēbantur” (B. G. 7.69) , these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels.

Note 2.--An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, sometimes as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur:—

  1. equō vehī, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equō .]
  2. “clipeōs ā mūribus esse dērōsōs ” (Div. 1.99) , that the shields were gnawed by mice.

For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 374.

Ablative of Comparison

406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative20 signifying than:—

  1. Catō est Cicerōne ēloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.
  2. “quid nōbīs duōbus labōriōsius est ” (Mil. 5) , what more burdened with toil than we two?
  3. “vīlius argentum est aurō, virtūtibus aurum ” (Hor. Ep. 1.1.52) , silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue.

a. The idiomatic ablatives opīniōne , spē , solitō , dictō , aequō , crēdibilī , and iūstō are used after comparatives instead of a clause:—

  1. “celerius opīniōne ” (Fam. 14.23) , faster than one would think.
  2. “sērius spē omnium ” (Liv. 26.26) , later than all hoped (than the hope of all).
  3. amnis solitō citātior (id. 23.19.11), a stream swifter than its wont.
    4. gravius aequō (Sall. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.

407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case<*>

  1. “nōn callidior es quam hīc ” (Rosc. Am. 49) , you are not more cunning than he.
  2. “ cōntiōnibus accommodātior est quam iūdiciīs ” (Clu. 2) , fitter for popular assemblies than for courts.
  3. “ misericordiā dīgnior quam contumēliā ” (Pison. 32) , more worthy of pity than of disgrace.

a. The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.

Note 1.--There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as, “—senex est eō meliōre condiciōne quam adulēscēns” (Cat. M. 68) , an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as,—minor fuit aliquantō is quī prīmus fābulam dedit quam eī quī, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc.

Note 2.--The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam : as,—pāne “egeō iam mellītīs potiōre placentīs” (Hor. Ep. 1.10.11) , I now want bread better than honey-cakes.

Note 3.--Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as,rēx erat Aenēās nōbīs, quō iūstior alter nec, etc. (Aen. 1.544), Æneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.

b. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam ) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative:—

  1. “nihil dētestābilius dēdecore, nihil foedius servitūte ” (Phil. 3.36) , nothing is more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.
  2. nēminem esse cāriōrem tē (Att. x. 8A. 1), that no one is dearer than you.

c. After the comparatives plūs, minus , amplius , longius , without quam , a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case:—

    plūs septingentī captī; (Liv. 41.12), more than seven hundred were taken. [Nominative.]
    plūs tertiā parte interfectā; (B. G. 3.6), more than a third part being slain. [Ablative Absolute.]
  1. aditus in lātitūdinem nōn amplius ducentōrum pedum relinquēbātur (id. 2.29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. [Genitive of Measure: § 345. b.]

Note.--The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: “seven hundred were taken [and] more.”

d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac ( atque ), et , more rarely by nisi , quam :—

    nec quicquam aliud lībertāte commūnī; (Fam. 11.2), nothing else than the common liberty.
  1. “ alius Lȳsippō ” (Hor. Ep. 2.1.240) , another than Lysippus.
    2. num aliud vidētur esse ac meōrum bonōrum dīreptiō; (Dom. 51), does it seem anything different from the plundering of my property?
  2. erat historia nihil aliud nisi annālium cōnfectiō; (De O<*>. 2.52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records.

e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam , rarely by the ablative except in poetry:—

  1. “tempus tē citius quam ōrātiō dēficeret ” (Rosc. Am. 89) , time would fail you sooner than words. But,—
  2. “cur olīvum sanguine vīperīnō cautius vītat ” (Hor. Od. 1.8.9) , why does he shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?

Note.--Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, suprā) are sometimes used with a comparative: as, “—scelere ante aliōs immānior omnīs” (Aen. 1.347) , more monstrous in crime than all other men.

USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL

408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instrumental Ablative (see § 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus ōrābant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner.

Ablative of Means or Instrument

409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action:—

  1. “certantēs pūgnīs, calcibus, unguibus, morsū dēnique ” (Tusc. 5.77) , fighting with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.
  2. “cum pūgnīs et calcibus concīsus esset ” (Verr. 3.56) , when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels.
    3. meīs labōribus interitū rem pūblicam līberāvī; (Sull. 33), by my toils I have saved the state from ruin.
  3. “multae istārum arborum meā manū sunt satae ” (Cat. M. 59) , many of those trees were set out with my own hands.
  4. “ vī victa vīs, vel potius oppressa virtūte audācia est ” (Mil. 30) , violence was overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.

a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like:—

  1. “Deus bonīs omnibus explēvit mundum ” (Tim. 3) , God has filled the world with all good things.
  2. “ aggere et crātibus fossās explent ” (B. G. 7.86) , they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines.
  3. tōtum montem hominibus complēvit (id. 1.24), he filled the whole mountain with men.
  4. “opīmus praedā ” (Verr. 2.1.132) , rich with spoils.
  5. vīta plēna et cōnferta voluptātibus (Sest.23), life filled and crowded with delights.
  6. “Forum Appī differtum nautīs ” (Hor. S. 1.5.4) , Forum Appii crammed with bargemen.

Note.--In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleō and impleō sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. § 356); so regularly plēnus and (with personal nouns) complētus and refertus (§ 349. a):—

  1. “omnia plēna lūctūs et maerōris fuērunt ” (Sest. 128) , everything was full of grief and mourning.
  2. “ ōllam dēnāriōrum implēre ” (Fam. 9.18) , to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
    3. convīvium vīcīnōrum compleō; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
  3. “cum complētus mercātōrum carcer esset ” (Verr. 5.147) , when the prison was full of traders.

410. The deponents ūtor , fruor , fungor , potior , vescor , with several of their compounds,21 govern the Ablative:—

  1. “ūtar vestrā benīgnitāte ” (Arch. 18) , I will avail myself of your kindness.
  2. “ita mihi salvā rē pūblicā vōbīscum perfruī liceat ” (Cat. 4.11) , so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous.
  3. “fungī inānī mūnere ” (Aen. 6.885) , to perform an idle service.
  4. “ aurō hērōs potitur ” (Ov. M. 7.156) , the hero takes the gold.
  5. “ lacte et ferīnā carne vescēbantur ” (Iug. 89) , they fed on milk and game.

Note.--This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are really in the middle voice (§ 156. a). Thus ūtor with the ablative signifies I employ myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.

a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potīri rērum, to get control or be master of affairs (§ 357. a):—

  1. “tōtīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant ” (B. G. 1.3) , they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul.

Note 1.--In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative:—

  1. “fūnctus est officium ” (Ter. Ph. 281) , he performed the part, etc.
  2. “ille patria potitur commoda ” (Ter. Ad. 871) , he enjoys his ancestral estate.

Note 2.--The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but cf. § 500. 3): as, “—Hēracliō omnia ūtenda ac possidenda trādiderat” (Verr. 2.46) , he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed).

411. Opus and ūsus , signifying need, take the Ablative:—22

  1. magistrātibus opus est (Leg. 3.5), there is need of magistrates.
  2. “nunc vīribus ūsus ” (Aen. 8.441) , now there is need of strength.

Note.--The ablative with ūsus is not common in classic prose.

a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun:—

    opus est tuā exprōmptā malitiā atque astūtiā; (Ter. And. 723), I must have your best cunning and cleverness set to work.
    properātō opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.

Note 1.--So rarely with ūsus in comedy: as,quid istīs ūsust cōnscrīptīs (Pl. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing?

Note 2.--The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as,quid opus factōst (cf. B. G. 1.42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fierī ? with quō factō opus est ?]

b. Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject:—

  1. “ dux nōbīs et auctor opus est ” (Fam. 2.6.4) , we need a chief and responsible adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).
  2. “sī quid ipsī opus esset ” (B. G. 1.34) , if he himself wanted anything (if anything should be necessary for him).
  3. “ quae opus sunt ” (Cato R. R. 14.3) , things which are required.

Ablative of Manner

412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative; usually with cum , unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun:

  1. cum celeritāte vēnit, he came with speed. But,—
  2. summā celeritāte vēnit, he came with the greatest speed.
  3. “quid rēfert quā mē ratiōne cōgātis ” (Lael. 26) , what difference does it make in what way you compel me?

a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjective:—

  1. “ quantō id cum perīculō fēcerit ” (B. G. 1.17) , at what risk he did this.
  2. “nōn minōre cum taediō recubant ” (Plin. Ep. 9.17.3) , they recline with no less weariness.

b. With such words of manner as modō , pactō , ratiōne , rītū , vī, viā, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentiō, iūre, iniūriā), cum is not used:—

    apis Matīnae mōre modōque carmina fingō; (Hor. Od. 4.2.28), in the style and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.

Note.--So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum : as, “—īnsequitur cumulō aquae mōns” (Aen. 1.105) , a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure (id. 1.124); rīmīs (id. 1.123).]

Ablative of Accompaniment

413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum :—

  1. “ cum coniugibus ac līberīs ” (Att. 8.2.3) , with wives and children.
    2. cum funditōribus sagittāriīsque flūmen trānsgressī; (B. G. 2.19), having crossed the river with the archers and slingers.
  2. “quae supplicātiō sī cum cēterīs cōnferātur ” (Cat. 3.15) , if this thanksgiving be compared with others.
  3. “quae [lēx] esse cum tēlō vetat ” (Mil. 11) , the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon).
  4. “ sī sēcum suōs ēdūxerit ” (Cat. 1.30) , if he leads out with him his associates. [For sēcum , see § 144. b. N.1.]

a. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and here and there by early writers:—

  1. “subsequēbātur omnibus cōpiīs ” (B. G. 2.19) , he followed close with all his forces. [But also cum omnibus cōpiīs , id. 1.26.]
  2. “ hōc praesidiō profectus est ” (Verr. 2.1.86) , with this force he set out.

Note.-- Misceō and iungō , with some of their compounds, and cōnfundō take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum , or (2) sometimes the Dative (mostly poetical or late):—

  1. “mixta dolōre voluptās ” (B. Al. 56) , pleasure mingled with pain.
  2. “cûius animum cum suō misceat ” (Lael. 81) , whose soul he may mingle with his own.
  3. “flētumque cruōrī miscuit ” (Ov. M. 4.140) , and mingled tears with blood.
  4. “Caesar eās cohortīs cum exercitū suō coniūnxit ” (B. C. 1.18) , Cæsar united those cohorts with his own army.
  5. “āēr coniūnctus terrīs ” (Lucr. 5.562) , air united with earth.
  6. “hūmānō capitī cervīcem equīnam iungere ” (Hor. A. P. 1) , to join to a human head a horse's neck.

b. Words of Contention and the like require cum :—

  1. “armīs cum hoste certāre ” (Off. 3.87) , to fight with the enemy in arms.
  2. “libenter haec cum Q. Catulō disputārem ” (Manil. 66) , I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus.

Note.--But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a).

Ablative of Degree of Difference

414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference:—

  1. quīnque mīlibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.
  2. “ ā mīlibus passuum circiter duōbus ” (B. G. 5.32) , at a distance of about two miles. [For ā as an adverb, see § 433. 3.]
  3. “aliquot ante annīs ” (Tusc. 1.4) , several years before.
  4. “ aliquantō post suspexit ” (Rep. 6.9) , a while after, he looked up.
  5. “ multō mē vigilāre ācrius ” (Cat. 1.8) , that I watch much more sharply.
  6. “ nihilō erat ipse Cyclōps quam ariēs prūdentior ” (Tusc. 5.115) , the Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.

a. The ablatives quō ... eō ( hōc ), and quantō ... tantō , are used correlatively with comparatives, like the English the ... the 23:—

  1. “ quō minus cupiditātis, eō plūs auctōritātis ” (Liv. 24.28) , the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more).
  2. “ quantō erat gravior oppūgnātiō, tantō crēbriōrēs litterae mittēbantur ” (B. G. 5.45) , the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.

Note.--To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quō and eō ( hōc ) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause:—

  1. “eōque mē minus paenitet ” (N. D. 1.8) , and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so much the less I regret).
  2. “haec eō facilius faciēbant, quod ” (B. G. 3.12) , this they did the more easily for this reason, because, etc. [Cf. hōc mâiōre spē, quod (id. 3.9).]

b. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective:—

  1. “ paulō minus ducentīs ” (B. C. 3.28) , a little less than two hundred.
  2. “patria, quae mihi vītā meā multō est cārior ” (Cat. 1.27) , my country, which is much dearer to me than life.

But the construction with quam is more common.

Ablative of Quality

415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive modifier.

This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality:—24

  1. “ animō meliōre sunt gladiātōrēs ” (Cat. 2.26) , the gladiators are of a better mind.
  2. “quae cum esset cīvitās aequissimō iūre ac foedere ” (Arch. 6) , as this was a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
  3. “mulierem eximiā pulchritūdine ” (Verr. 2.1.64) , a woman of rare beauty.
  4. “Aristotelēs, vir summō ingeniō, scientiā, cōpiā ” (Tusc. 1.7) , Aristotle, a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
  5. “dē Domitiō dīxit versum Graecum eādem sententiā ” (Deiot. 25) , concerning Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.

Note.--The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, § 345) modifies a substantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs.

a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. § 345. N.):—

  1. “ capillō sunt prōmissō ” (B. G. 5.14) , they have long hair.
  2. “ut capite opertō sit ” (Cat. M. 34) , to have his head covered (to be with covered head).
  3. quam fuit inbēcillus P. Āfricānī fīlius, quam tenuī aut nūllā potius valētūdine (id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or rather none at all!

Ablative of Price

416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative:—

  1. agrum vēndidit sēstertium sex mīlibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.
  2. “Antōnius rēgna addīxit pecūniā ” (Phil. 7.15) , Antony sold thrones for money.
  3. “logōs rīdiculōs: quis cēnā poscit ” (Pl. Stich. 221) , jokes: who wants them for (at the price of) a dinner?
  4. “ māgnō illī ea cūnctātiō stetit ” (Liv. 2.36) , that hesitation cost him dear.

Note.--To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1).

417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinite value. Such are māgnī , parvī , tantī , quantī , plūris , minōris :—

  1. meā māgnī interest, it is of great consequence to me.
  2. “illud parvī rēfert ” (Manil. 18) , this is of small account.
  3. “est mihi tantī ” (Cat. 2.15) , it is worth the price (it is of so much).
  4. “Verrēsne tibi tantī fuit ” (Verr. 2.1.77) , was Verres of so much account to you?
  5. tantōne minōris decumae vēniērunt (id. 3.106), were the tithes sold for so much less?
  6. “ut tē redimās captum quam queās minimō: sī nequeās paululō, at quantī queās ” (Ter. Eun. 74) , to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.

Note.--These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345. b).

a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefinite value. Such are nihilī ( nīlī ), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare); floccī (a lock of wool), a straw:—

    nōn floccī faciō; (Att. 13.50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.]
  1. “utinam ego istuc abs tē factum nīlī penderem ” (Ter. Eun. 94) , O that I cared nothing for this being done by you! [Colloquial.]

b. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mūtō , commūtō , permūtō , vertō :—

  1. “fidem suam et religiōnem pecūniā commūtāre ” (Clu. 129) , to barter his faith and conscience for money.
  2. “exsilium patriā sēde mūtāvit ” (Q. C. 3.7.11) , he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).
  3. “vēlōx saepe Lucrētilem mūtat Lycaeō Faunus ” (Hor. Od. 1.17.1) , nimble Faunus often changes Lycœus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price of Lycæus, i.e. he goes from Lycæus to Lucretilis.]
  4. vertere fūneribus triumphōs (id. 1.35.4), to change the triumph to the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]

Note.--With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different conception of the action: as,—ariēs ... “ cum croceō mūtābit vellera lūtō” (Ecl. 4.44) , the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron.

c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price must be used, except in the case of tantī , quantī , plūris , minōris :—

  1. “ quantī eam ēmit? vīlī ... quot minīs? quadrāgintā minīs ” (Pl. Epid. 51) , what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many minœ? Forty.

Ablative of Specification

418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done:—

  1. “ virtūte praecēdunt ” (B. G. 1.1) , they excel in courage.
  2. “claudus alterō pede ” (Nep. Ages. 8) , lame of one foot.
    3. linguā haesitantēs, vōce absonī; (De Or. 1.115), hesitating in speech, harsh in voice.
  3. “sunt enim hominēs nōn rē sed nōmine ” (Off. 1.105) , for they are men not in fact, but in name.
  4. mâior nātū, older; minor nātū, younger (cf. § 131. c).
    5. paulum aetāte prōgressī; (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.
  5. corpore senex esse poterit, animō numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart.

a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done:—

  1. meō iūre, with perfect right; but, meō modō, in my fashion.
  2. meā sententiā, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex meā sententiā . [Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the second source.]
  3. “ propinquitāte coniūnctōs atque nātūrā ” (Lael. 50) , closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, but no doubt is a development of means.]
  4. quī vincit vīribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible to tell whether vīribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.]

Note.--As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instrumental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and cause.

For the Supine in -ū as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510.

b. The adjectives dīgnus and indīgnus take the ablative:—

  1. “vir patre, avō, mâiōribus suīs dīgnissimus ” (Phil. 3.25) , a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
  2. “tē omnī honōre indīgnissimum iūdicāvit ” (Vat. 39) , he judged you entirely unworthy of every honor.

Note 1.--So the verb dīgnor in poetry and later prose: as, “—haud equidem tālī mē dīgnor honōre” (Aen. 1.335) , I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor.

Note 2.-- Dīgnus and indīgnus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry:—

    cūram dīgnissimam tuae virtūtis (Balbus inAtt. 8.15), care most worthy of your noble character.
  1. dīgnus salūtis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.
  2. “māgnōrum haud umquam indīgnus avōrum ” (Aen. 12.649) , never unworthy of my great ancestors.

Ablative Absolute

419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute:—25

  1. “Caesar, acceptīs litterīs, nūntium mittit ” (B. G. 5.46) , having received the letter, Cæsar sends a messenger (the letter having been received).
  2. “quibus rēbus cōgnitīs Caesar apud mīlitēs cōntiōnātur ” (B. C. 1.7) , having learned this, Cæsar makes a speech to the soldiers.
  3. “ fugātō omnī equitātū ” (B. G. 7.68) , all the cavalry being put to flight.
  4. interfectō Indūtiomārō (id. 6.2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.
  5. nōndum hieme cōnfectā in fīnīs Nerviōrum contendit (id. 6.3), though the winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.
  6. “compressī [sunt] cōnātūs nūllō tumultū pūblicē concitātō ” (Cat. 1.11) , the attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
  7. nē vōbīs quidem omnibus rē etiam tum probātā (id. 2.4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.

Note.--The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name absolute ( absolūtus , i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.

a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the Ablative Absolute construction:—26

  1. “exiguā parte aestātis reliquā ” (B. G. 4.20) , when but a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
  2. L. Domitiō Ap. Claudiō cōnsulibus (id. 5.1), in the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being] consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.]
  3. “nīl dēspērandum Teucrō duce et auspice Teucrō ” (Hor. Od. 1.7.27) , there should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and auspices (Teucer being leader, etc.).

b. A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective:—

  1. “ incertō quid peterent ” (Liv. 28.36) , as it was uncertain what they should aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
  2. “ compertō vānum esse formīdinem ” (Tac. Ann. 1.66) , when it was found that the alarm was groundless.
  3. “cūr praetereātur dēmōnstrātō ” (Inv. 2.34) , when the reason for omitting it has been explained (why it is passed by being explained).

Note.--This construction is very rare except in later Latin.

c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive:—

  1. “ cōnsultō ” (Off. 1.27) , on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on).
  2. “mihi optātō vēneris ” (Att. 13.28.3) , you will come in accordance with my wish.
  3. “ serēnō ” (Liv. 31.12) , under a clear sky (it [being] clear).
  4. nec auspicātō nec lītātō (id. 5.38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.
  5. “ tranquillō, ut âiunt, quīlibet gubernātor est ” (Sen. Ep. 85.34) , in good weather, as they say, any man's a pilot.

420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub ordinate Clause.

Thus it may replace—

    A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ff.):—
    1. patre interfectō , [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.]
    2. “recentibus sceleris êius vestīgiīs” (Q. C. 7.1.1) , while the traces of the crime were fresh. [Cf. dum recentia sunt vestīgia .]
    A Causal Clause (§ 540):—
    1. “at eī quī Alesiae obsidēbanturpraeteritā diē quā auxilia suōrum exspectāverant,cōnsūmptōomnīfrūmentō, conciliō coāctō cōnsultābant ” (B. G. 7.77) , but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5 below), consulted together. [Cf. cum diēs praeterīsset , etc.]
    2. “Dārēus,dēspērātā pāce, ad reparandās vīrīs intendit animum ” (Q. C. 4.6.1) , Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting his forces. [Cf. cum pācem dēspērāret .]
    A Concessive Clause (§ 527):—
    1. “at eō repūgnantefīēbat (cōnsul), immo vērō eō fīēbat magis” (Mil. 34) , but though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul; nay, rather, etc.
    2. “turribus excitātīs, tamen hās altitūdō puppium ex barbarīs nāvibus superābat ” (B. G. 3.14) , although towers had been built up, still the high sterns of the enemy's ships rose above them.
    A Conditional Clause (§ 521):—
    1. “occurrēbat eī, mancam et dēbilem praetūram futūram suam, cōnsule Milōne” (Mil. 25) , it occurred to him that his prœtorship would be maimed and feeble, if Milo were consul. [ sī Milō cōnsul esset .]
      2. quā (regiōne) subāctālicēbit dēcurrere in illud mare (Q. C. 9.3.13), if this region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea.
    2. “quā quidem dētrāctā” (Arch. 28) , if this be taken away.
    A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance:—
      ego haec ā Chrȳsogonō meā sponte, remōtō Sex.Rōsciō, quaerō; (Rosc. Am. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.
    1. “nec imperante necsciente nec praesente dominō” (Mil. 29) , without their master's giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.

Note.--As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Ablative Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle. These changes may be seen in the following example:—

At illī, intermissō spatiō, imprūdentibus nostrīs atque occupātīs in mūnītiōne castrōrum, subitō sē ex silvīs ēiēcērunt; impetū que in eōs factō quī erant in statiōne prō castrīs conlocātī, ācriter pūgnāvērunt; duābusque missīs subsidiō cohortibus ā Caesare, cum hae ( perexiguō intermissō locī spatiō inter sē) cōnstitissent, novō genere pūgnae perterritīs nostrīs , per mediōs audācissimē perrūpērunt sēque inde incolumīs recēpērunt.— CAESAR, B. G. 5.15.

But they, having paused a space, while our men were unaware and busied in fortifying the camp, suddenly threw themselves out of the woods; then, making an attack upon those who were on guard in front of the camp, they fought fiercely; and, though two cohorts had been sent by Cæsar as reinforcements, after these had taken their position (leaving very little space of ground between them), as our men were alarmed by the strange kind of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of them and got off safe.

For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220.

THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE

Ablative of Place

421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in most instances with the preposition in.

422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Locative), which are systematically treated in § 423 ff.

TIME AND PLACE

Time

423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Ablative; time how long by the Accusative.

    Ablative:—
    1. cōnstitūtā diē, on the appointed day; prīm˘ lūce, at daybreak.
    2. quotā hōrā, at what o'clock? tertiā vigiliā, in the third watch.
    3. “tribus proximīs annīs ” (Iug. 11) , within the last three years.
    4. “diēbusvīgintī quīnque aggerem exstrūxērunt ” (B. G. 7.24) , within twentyfive days they finished building a mound.
    Accusative:—
    1. diēs continuōs trīgintā, for thirty days together.
    2. “cum trīduumiter fēcisset ” (B. G. 2.16) , when he had marched three days.

Note.--The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (§ 421); the Accusative is the same as that of the extent of space (§ 425).

424. Special constructions of time are the following:—

a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision:—

  1. “ in diēbus proximīs decem ” (Iug. 28) , within the next ten days.
  2. “lūdī per decem diēs ” (Cat. 3.20) , games for ten days.

b. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:—

  1. “militēs quīnque hōrīs proelium sustinuerant ” (B. C. 1.47) , the men had sustained the fight five hours.

Note.--In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annōs quattuordecim (B. G. 1.36), for fourteen years.

c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral:—

  1. quīntō diē, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans counted both ends, see § 631. d.]
  2. rēgnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years.

d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when where in English the main idea is rather of place:—

  1. pūgnā Cannēnsī; (or, apud Cannās), in the fight at Cannœ
  2. lūdīs Rōmānīs, at the Roman games.
  3. omnibus Gallicīs bellīs, in all the Gallic wars.

e. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad , in, or sub is used. Such are the following:—

  1. supplicātiō dēcrēta est in Kalendās Iānuāriās, a thanksgiving was voted for the first of January.
  2. convēnērunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day.
  3. ad vesperum, till evening; sub vesperum, towards evening.
  4. sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall.

f. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed:

  1. post (ante) trēs annōs, post tertium annum, trēs post annōs, tertium post annum, tribus post annīs, tertiō post annō (§ 414), three years after.
  2. tribus annīs (tertiō annō) post exsilium (postquam ēiectus est), three years after his exile.
  3. hīs tribus proximīs annīs, within the last three years.
  4. paucīs annīs, a few years hence.
  5. abhinc annōs trēs (tribus annīs), ante hōs trēs annōs, three years ago.
  6. triennium est cum (trēs annī sunt cum), it is three years since.
  7. octāvō mēnse quam, the eighth month after (see § 434. N.).

g. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition; and the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.

The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. a):—

  1. is diēs erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quīntum Kalendās Aprīlīs) L. Pīsōne A. “Gabīniō cōnsulibus” (B. G. 1.6) , that day was the 5th before the calends of April (March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius.
  2. “in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. ” (Cat. 1.7) , to the 5th day before the calends of November (Oct. 28).
  3. xv. Kal. Sextīlīs, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full form: quīntō decimō diē ante Kalendās .]

For the Roman Calendar, see § 631.

Extent of Space

425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative:—
  1. “fossās quīndecim pedēs lātās ” (B. G. 7.72) , trenches fifteen feet broad.
  2. prōgressus mīlia passuum circiter duodecim (id. 5.9), having advanced about twelve miles.
    3. in omnī vītā suā quemque ā rēctā cōnscientiā trānsversum unguem nōn oportet discēdere (quoted inAtt. 13.20), in all one's life, one should not depart a nail's breadth from straightforward conscience.

Note.--This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes place and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2).

a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 345. b):

  1. “vāllum duodecim pedum ” (B. G. 7.72) , a rampart of twelve feet (in height).

b. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accusative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative (§ 414):—

  1. “ mīlia passuum tria ab eōrum castrīs castra pōnit ” (B. G. 1.22) , he pitches his camp three miles from their camp.
  2. “quīnque diērum iter abest ” (Liv. 30.29) , it is distant five days' march.
  3. “trīgintā mīlibus passuum īnfrā eum locum ” (B. G. 6.35) , thirty miles below that place (below by thirty miles).

Relations of Place

426. Relations of Place27 are expressed as follows:—

  1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab , dē , or ex .
  2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with<*>d or in.
  3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
Examples are:—

    Place from which:—
    1. ā septentriōne, from the north.
      2. cum ā vōbīsdiscesserō; (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you.
    2. dē prōvinciādēcēdere, to come away from one's province.
    3. dē monte, down from the mountain.
    4. “negōtiātorex Āfricā” (Verr. 2.1.14) , a merchant from Africa.
    5. “ex Britanniāobsidēs mīsērunt ” (B. G. 4.38) , they sent hostages from Britain.
    6. Mōsa prōfluit ex monteVosegō; (id. 4.10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains.
    Place to which (end of motion）:—
    1. “nocte ad Nerviōspervēnērunt ” (B. G. 2.17) , they came by night to the Nervii.
    2. “adībam ad istum fundum” (Caec. 82) , I was going to that estate.
    3. in Āfricamnāvigāvit, he sailed to Africa; in Ītaliamprofectus, gone to Italy.
    4. “lēgātumin Treverōs mittit ” (B. G. 3.11) , he sends his lieutenant into the [country of the] Treveri.
    Place where:—
    1. in hāc urbe vītam dēgit, he passed his life in this city.
    2. “sī inGalliāremanērent ” (B. G. 4.8) , if they remained in Gaul.
    3. dum haec in Venetīs geruntur (id. 3.17), while this was going on among the Veneti.
    4. oppidum in īnsulā positum (id. 7.58), a town situated on an island.
427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rūs , the Relations of Place are expressed as follows:—

  1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
  2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
  3. The place where, by the Locative.28
Examples are:—

    Place from which:—
    1. Rōmāprofectus, having set out from Rome; Rōmāabesse, to be absent from Rome.
    2. domōabīre, to leave home;rūrereversus, having returned from the country.
    Place to which:—
    1. “cum Rōmamsextō diē Mutinā vēnisset ” (Fam. 11.6.1) , when he had come to Rome from Modena in five days (on the sixth day).
    2. DēlōRhodumnāvigāre, to sail from Delos to Rhodes.
    3. rūsībō, I shall go into the country.
    4. domum iit, he went home. 29 [So, suāsdomōsabīre, to go to their homes.]
  1. Place where (or at which）:—

Rōmae, at Rome (Rōma). Athēnīs, at Athens (Athēnae).
Rhodī, at Rhodes (Rhodus). Lānuvī, at Lanuvium.
Samī, at Samos. Cyprī, at Cyprus.
Tīburī or Tībure, at Tibur. Cūribus, at Cures.
Philippīs, at Philippi. Capreīs, at Capri (Capreae).
domī (rarely domuī ), at home. rūrī, in the country.

a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns, which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition:—

bellī, mīlitiae (in contrast to domī ), abroad, in military service.

humī, on the ground. vesperī (-e), in the evening.
forīs, out of doors. animī (see § 358).
herī (-e), yesterday. temperī, betimes.

    Cf. īnfēlīcī arborī; (Liv. 1.26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terrā marīque, by land and sea.
428. Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are the following:—

a. With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neighborhood of:—

  1. “ut ā Mutinā discēderet ” (Phil. 14.4) , that he should retire from Modena (which he was besieging).
  2. “erat ā Gergoviā dēspectus in castra ” (B. G. 7.45) , there was from about Gergovia a view into the camp.
  3. ad Alesiam proficīscuntur (id. 7.76), they set out for Alesia.
  4. ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. 7.79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighborhood of the town).
  5. D. “Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium vēnit” (B. C. 3.100) , Decimus Lœlius came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).

b. The general words urbs , oppidum , īnsula require a preposition to express the place from which, to which, or where:—

ab (ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city.
ad urbem, to the city. Rōmae in urbe, in the city of Rome.
in urbem, into the city. Rōmā ex urbe, from the city of Rome.
ad urbem Rōmam (Rōmam ad urbem), to the city of Rome.

c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders; in with the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away from the outside; ex, out of the interior.

Thus ad Ītaliam pervēnit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of the destination; in Ītaliam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome, for instance.

So ab Ītaliā profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point; ex Ītaliā, he came from Italy, from within, as from Rome, for instance.

d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed by ad or apud with the accusative.

  1. pūgna ad Cannās, the fight at Cannae.
  2. “conchās ad Câiētam legunt ” (De Or. 2.22) , at Caieta (along the shore).
  3. ad (apud) īnferōs, in the world below (near, or among, those below).

Note.-- In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circā with the accusative; among, by apud with the accusative:—

ad forīs, at the doors. ad iānuam, at the door.

Note 2.--In citing an author, apud is regularly used; in citing a particular work, in. Thus,apud Xenophōntem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophōntis Oeconomicō, in Xenophon's Œconomicus

apud Graecōs, among the Greeks. apud mē, at my house.
apud Solēnsīs (Leg. 2.41), at Soli. circā Capuam, round about Capua.

e. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality, are treated like names of countries:—

  1. in Siciliā, in Sicily.
  2. “ in Ithacā leporēs illātī moriuntur ” (Plin. H. N. 8.226) , in Ithaca hares, when carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae .]

f. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place from which in certain idiomatic expressions:—

  1. “cessisset patriā ” (Mil. 68) , he would have left his country.
  2. patriā pellere, to drive out of the country.
  3. manū mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).

g. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the place from which or to which when it would be required in classical prose:—

  1. “mānīs Acheronte remissōs ” (Aen. 5.99) , the spirits returned from Acheron.
    2. Scythiā profectī; (Q. C. 4.12.11), setting out from Scythia.
  2. “ Ītaliam ... Lāvīniaque vēnit lītora ” (Aen. 1.2) , he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores.
  3. terram Hesperiam veniēs (id. 2.781, you shall come to the Hesperian land.
  4. “ Aegyptum proficīscitur ” (Tac. Ann. 2.59) , he sets out for Egypt.

h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative, occasionally also in later prose:—

  1. “it clāmor caelō ” (Aen. 5.451) , a shout goes up to the sky.
  2. facilis dēscēnsus Avernō (id. 6.126), easy is the descent to Avernus.
  3. diadēma capitī repōnere iussit (Val. Max. 5.1.9), he ordered him to put back the diadem on his head.

i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 509) and in the following old phrases:—

exsequiās īre, to go to the funeral. īnfitiās īre, to resort to denial.
pessum īre, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdō ).

  1. vēnum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vēndere .]
  2. vēnum īre, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence vēnīre .]
  3. forās (used as adverb), out: as,forās ēgredī, to go out of doors.
  4. suppetiās advenīre, to come to one's assistance.
j. When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction:—
  1. “quadriduō quō haec gesta sunt rēs ad Chrȳsogonum in castra L. Sullae Volā terrās dēfertur ” (Rosc. Am. 20) , within four days after this was done, th matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla's camp AT Volaterrœ.

Note.--The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k, N.).

k. Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domī , may be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive:—

  1. “domum rēgis ” (Deiot. 17) , to the king's house. [But also “in M. Laecae domum” (Cat. 1.8) , to Marcus Lœca's house.]
  2. domī meae, at my house; domī Caesaris, at Cæsar's house.
  3. domī suae vel aliēnae, at his own or another's house.

Note.--At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in domum or in domō is used:—

    in domum prīvātam conveniunt (Tac. H. 4.55), they come to gether in a private house.
  1. “ in Mārcī Crassī castissimā domō ” (Cael. 9) , in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus. [Cf. ex Anniānā Milōnis domō, § 302. e.]

429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition in the following instances:—

    Often in indefinite words, such as locō , parte , etc.:—
      quibus locōpositī<*> (De Or. 3.153), when these are set in position.
    1. “quā parte bellī vīcerant ” (Liv. 21.22) , the branch of warfare in which they were victorious.
    2. “locīs certīs horrea cōnstituit ” (B. C. 3.32) , he established granaries in particular places.
    Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regularly when tōtus is used):—
    1. “mediā urbe” (Liv. 1.33) , in the middle of the city.
    2. “tōtā Siciliā” (Verr. 4.51) , throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily).
    3. “tōtā Tarracīnā” (De Or. 2.240) , in all Tarracina.
    4. “cūnctāAsiā atque Graeciā” (Manil. 12) , throughout the whole of Asia and Greece too.
    In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place:
    1. “pendēmus animīs” (Tusc. 1.96) , we are in suspense of mind (in our minds).
      2. sociusperīculīsvōbīscum aderō; (Iug. 85.47), I will be present with you, a companion in dangers.
    Freely in poetry:—
      lītorecurvō; (Aen. 3.16), on the winding shore.
    1. antrōsēclūsa relinquit (id. 3.446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.
    2. Ēpīrō, Hesperiā (id. 3.503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
    3. premit altum cordedolōrem (id. 1.209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
a. The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:
    viā breviōre equitēs praemīsī; (Fam. 10.9), I sent forward the cavalry by a shorter road.
  1. “Aegaeō marī trāiēcit ” (Liv. 37.14) , he crossed by way of the Ægean Sea.
  2. “prōvehimur pelagō ” (Aen. 3.506) , we sail forth over the sea.

Note.--In this use the way by which is conceived as the means of passage.

b. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely ex ), properly meaning from:—30

  1. ā tergō, in the rear; ā sinistrā, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.]
  2. ā parte Pompêiānā, on the side of Pompey.
  3. ex alterā parte, on the other side.
  4. māgnā ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part).

430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the construction of the place where:—

Such are pōnō , locō , collocō , statuō , cōnstituō , etc.:—

  1. “quī in sēde ac domō collocāvit ” (Par. 25) , who put [one] into his place and home.
  2. “statuitur eques Rōmānus in Aprōnī convīviō ” (Verr. 3.62) , a Roman knight is brought into a banquet of Apronius.
  3. “īnsula Dēlos in Aegaeō marī posita ” (Manil. 55) , the island of Delos, situated in the Ægean Sea.
  4. sī in ūnō Pompêiō omnia pōnerētis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on Pompey alone.

Note.--Compounds of pōnō take various constructions (see the Lexicon under each word).

431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.

These are acquiēscō , dēlector , laetor , gaudeō , glōrior , nītor , stō , maneō , fīdō , cōnfīdō , cōnsistō , contineor .

  1. “ nōminibus veterum glōriantur ” (Or. 169) , they glory in the names of the ancients. [Also, dē dīvitiīs (in virtūte, circā rem, aliquid, haec） glōriārī.]
    2. spē nītī; (Att. 3.9), to rely on hope.
  2. “ prūdentiā fīdēns ” (Off. 1.81) , trusting in prudence.

Note.--The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fīdō in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus,—in “quibus causa nītitur” (Cael. 25) , on whom the case depends.

With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For fīdō and cōnfīdō with the Dative, see § 367.

a. The verbals frētus , contentus , and laetus take the Locative Ablative:—

    frētus grātiā Brūtī; (Att. 5.21.12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
  1. laetus praedā, rejoicing in the booty.
  2. contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.]
  3. “nōn fuit contentus glōriā ” (Dom. 101) , he was not content with the glory.

Note.--So intentus , rarely: as,aliquō negōtiō intentus (Sall. Cat. 2), intent on some occupation.

SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS

31

Adverbs and Prepositions

432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as Prepositions:—

a. The adverbs prīdiē , postrīdiē , propius , proximē , less frequently the adjectives propior and proximus , may be followed by the Accusative:—

  1. “prīdiē Nōnās Mâiās ” (Att. 2.11) , the day before the Nones of May (see § 631).
  2. “postrīdiē lūdōs ” (Att. 16.4) , the day after the games.
  3. “propius perīculum ” (Liv. 21.1) , nearer to danger.
  4. “propior montem ” (Iug. 49) , nearer the hill.
  5. “proximus mare ōceanum ” (B. G. 3.7) , nearest the ocean.

Note.-- Prīdiē and postrīdiē take also the Genitive (§ 359. b). Propior , propius , proximus , and proximē , take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab :—

  1. “propius Tiberī quam Thermopylīs ” (Nep. Hann. 8) , nearer to the Tiber than to Thermopylæ.
  2. “Sugambrī quī sunt proximī Rhēnō ” (B. G. 6.35) , the Sugambri, who are nearest to the Rhine.
  3. “proximus ā postrēmō ” (Or. 217) , next to the last.

b. Ūsque sometimes takes the Accusative, but ūsque ad is much more common:—

  1. terminōs ūsque Libyae (Iust. 1.1.5), to the bounds of Libya.
  2. “ūsque ad castra hostium ” (B. G. 1.51) , to the enemy's camp.

c. The adverbs palam , procul , simul , may be used as prepositions and take the Ablative:—

  1. “rem crēditōrī palam populō solvit ” (Liv. 6.14) , he paid the debt to his creditor in the presence of the people.
  2. “haud procul castrīs in modum mūnicipī exstrūcta ” (Tac. H. 4.22) , not far from the camp, built up like a town.
  3. simul nōbīs habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. 5.10.29), close among us dwells the barbarian.

Note.--But simul regularly takes cum; procul is usually followed by ab in classic writers; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.

d. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative, also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the Ablative:—

    clam mātrem suam (Pl. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother.
  1. clam patris (id. Merc. 43), without his father's knowledge.
    2. clam vōbīs (B. C. 2.32.8), without your knowledge.

433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs:—

    Ante and post in relations of time:—
    1. “quōs paulōante dīximus ” (Brut. 32) , whom I mentioned a little while ago.
    2. posttribus diēbus, three days after (cf. § 424. f).
    Adversus , circiter , prope :—
    1. “nēmōadversus ībat ” (Liv. 37.13.8) , no one went out in opposition.
      2. circiter pars quārta (Sall. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
    2. prope exanimātus, nearly lifeless.
    Ā or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of Degree of Difference (§ 414):—
    1. “ā mīlibus passuum circiter duōbus Rōmānōrum adventum exspectābant ” (B. G. 5.32) , at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they awaited the approach of the Romans.
    In general, prepositions ending in -ā:—
    1. “Aeolus haec contrā” (Aen. 1.76) , thus Æolus in reply.
    2. forte fuitiūxtā tumulus (id. 3.22), there happened to be a mound close by.
434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison are followed, like comparatives, by quam , which may be separated by several words, or even clauses.

Such words are ante , prius , post, posteā , prīdiē , postrīdiē; also magis and prae in compounds:—

  1. “neque ante dīmīsit eum quam fidem dedit ” (Liv. 39.10) , nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge.
  2. “ post diem tertium quam dīxerat ” (Mil. 44) , the third day after he said it.
  3. “Catō ipse iam servīre quam pūgnāre māvult ” (Att. 7.15) , Cato himself by this time had rather be a slave than fight.
  4. “Gallōrum quam Rōmānōrum imperia praeferre ” (B. G. 1.17) , [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans.

Note.--The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way (§ 424. f): as,—octāvō “mēnse quam” (Liv. 21.15) , within eight months after, etc.

435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their nouns: ad , citrā , circum , contrā , dē , ē ( ex ), inter , iūxtā , penes , propter , ultrā; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others:—

    [ūsus] quem penes arbitrium est et iūs et norma loquendī; (Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.
  1. “cûius ā mē corpus est cremātum, quod contrā decuit ab illō meum ” (Cat. M. 84) , whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary (contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him.

1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).

2 The e-vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 45. c).

3 Such are dōnō , impertiō, induō , exuō , adspergō, īnspergō, circumdō , and in poetry accingō , implicō , and similar verbs.

4 These include, among others, the following: adversor , cēdō , crēdō, faveō , fīdō , fgnōscō, imperō , indulgeō , invideō , īrāscor , minitor , noceō , parcō , pāreō , placeō , resistō , serviō , studeō , suādeō ( persuādeō ), suscēnseō, temperō ( obtemperō ).

5 See the Lexicon under caveō, conveniō , cupiō , īnsistō , maneō , praevertō , recipiō , renūntiō , solvō , succēdō

6 Such verbs are aggredior , adeō , antecēdō , anteeō , antegredior , conveniō , ineō , obeō , offendō , oppugnō , praecēdō , subeō

7 Datīvus commodī aut incommodī.

8 Datīvus iūdicantis

9 Compare “I'll rhyme you so eight years together.”—As You Like It, 3.2.

10 Datīvus ēthicus.

11 Adjectives of this kind are accommodātus , aptus; amīcus, inimīcus , īnfestus , invīsus , molestus; idōneus, opportūnus , proprius; ūtilis, inūtilis; affīnis, fīnitimus , propinquus , vīcīnus; pār, dispār, similis , dissimilis; iūcundus, grātus; nōtus, īgnōtus , and others.

12 Such are aequālis , affīnis , aliēnus , amīcus , cōgnātus , commūnis , cōnsanguineus , contrārius , dispār, familiāris , fīnitimus , inimīcus , necessārius , pār , pecūliāris , propinquus , proprius (regularly genitive), sacer , similis , superstes , vīcīnus .

13 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with arma gerere, to bear arms; fidicen, lyre-player, with fidibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tāctiō (Plaut.), the [act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (§ 388. d. N.2).

14 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. “ trāiectō fūne ” (Aen. 5.488) .

15 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative.

16 As nātus, satus, ēditus, genitus, ortus, prōgnātus, generātus, crētus, creātus, oriundus.

17 The ablative with cōnsistere and continērī is probably locative in origin (cf. § 431).

18 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, dē, ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).

19 Originally a mercantile use: cf. ob decem minās, for the price of ten minæ.

20 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything is compared is the starting-point from which we reckon. Thus, “Cicero is eloquent”; but, starting from him we come to Cato, who is “more so than he.”

21 These are abūtor, deūtor (very rare), dēfungor , dēfruor , perfruor , perfungor .

22 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and ūsus mean work and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed or the service rendered. The noun ūsus follows the analogy of the verb ūtor , and the ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with ūsus est.

23 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the Anglo-Saxon thȳ, the instrumental case of the pronoun thæt, that. This pronoun is used both as relative (by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so much). Thus the ... the corresponds exactly to quō ... eō .

24 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompaniment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412).

25 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, sometimes explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development.

26 The present participle of esse , wanting in Latin (§ 170. b), is used in Sanskrit and Greek as in English.

27 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative, in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion; the ablative, in its proper meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usward, toward us), and by long association became indispensable except as indicated below.

28 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.)

29 The English home in this construction is, like domum , an old accusative of the end of motion.

30 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes.

31 For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see § 221.

Ginn and Company, 1903.

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  • Cross-references from this page (596):
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    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 10, 1
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    • Caesar, Civil War, 1.71
    • Caesar, Civil War, 1.72
    • Caesar, Civil War, 1.78
    • Caesar, Civil War, 1.83
    • Caesar, Civil War, 2.29
    • Caesar, Civil War, 2.32
    • Caesar, Civil War, 2.36
    • Caesar, Civil War, 2.37
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.100
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.101
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.22
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.28
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.32
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.80
    • Tacitus, Annales, 12.1
    • Tacitus, Annales, 12.25
    • Tacitus, Annales, 16.19
    • Tacitus, Annales, 1.27
    • Tacitus, Annales, 1.53
    • Tacitus, Annales, 1.59
    • Tacitus, Annales, 1.66
    • Tacitus, Annales, 2.59
    • Tacitus, Annales, 6.36
    • Tacitus, Historiae, 1.63
    • Tacitus, Historiae, 2.32
    • Tacitus, Historiae, 4.22
    • Tacitus, Historiae, 4.55
    • Terence, The Mother-in-Law, 2.1
    • Terence, The Mother-in-Law, 5.2
    • Terence, Phormio, 1.2
    • Terence, Phormio, 1.4
    • Terence, Phormio, 2.1
    • Terence, Phormio, 4.5
    • Terence, Phormio, 5.7
    • Terence, Phormio, 5.8
    • Plautus, Epidicus, 1.1
    • Plautus, Epidicus, 1.2
    • Plautus, Miles Gloriosus, 2.1
    • Plautus, Miles Gloriosus, 4.6
    • Terence, The Brothers, 1.1
    • Terence, The Brothers, 3.1
    • Terence, The Brothers, 3.2
    • Terence, The Brothers, 3.3
    • Terence, The Brothers, 5.4
    • Terence, The Brothers, 5.8
    • Terence, Andria, 1.5
    • Terence, Andria, 4.3
    • Terence, The Eunuch, 1.1
    • Terence, The Eunuch, 1.2
    • Terence, The Eunuch, 3.2
    • Terence, The Eunuch, 4.7
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 1.115
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 1.183
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 1.48
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 2.22
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 2.240
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 2.268
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 2.355
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 3.153
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 3.18
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 3.184
    • Cicero, On Oratory, 3.207
    • Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, 1.922
    • Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, 5.562
    • Cornelius Nepos, Agesilaus, 8
    • Cornelius Nepos, Atticus, 13
    • Cornelius Nepos, Atticus, 8
    • Cornelius Nepos, Atticus, 9
    • Cornelius Nepos, Eumenes, 4.1
    • Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal, 8
    • Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 11.18
    • Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 8.73
    • Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 8.83
    • Pliny the Younger, Epistulae, 4.13.4
    • Pliny the Younger, Epistulae, 9.17.3
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 41, 12
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 41, 16
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 30, 29
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 30, 31.6
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 30, 9
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 3, 48
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 3, 67
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 24, 28
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 25, 13
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 25, 2
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 28, 36
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 37, 13.8
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 37, 14
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 2, 10
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 2, 12
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 2, 28
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 2, 30.9
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 2, 36
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 22, 49
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 9, 16
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 4, 49.14
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 5, 48
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 26, 26
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 31, 12
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 1, 24
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 1, 33
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 1, 39
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 1, 43
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 6, 14
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 6, 42
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 29, 9.9
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 40, 15.16
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 34, 7
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 21, 1
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 21, 14
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 21, 22
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 21, 53
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 21, 7
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 38, 25
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 39, 10
    • Cicero, De Legibus, 1.25
    • Cicero, De Legibus, 1.42
    • Cicero, Lucullus, 105
    • Cicero, Lucullus, 106
    • Cicero, Lucullus, 126
    • Cicero, Lucullus, 80
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 1.42
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 1.63
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 1.68
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 2.66
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 2.83
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 3.60
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 4.19
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 5.3
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 5.83
    • Cicero, de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, 5.87
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 1.124
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 1.29
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 1.43
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 1.8
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 1.91
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 1.97
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 2.123
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 2.60
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 3.4
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 3.5
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 3.56
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 3.72
    • Cicero, de Natura Deorum, 3.83
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 1
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 22
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 31
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 33
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 34
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 46
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 59
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 7
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 71
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 75
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 78
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 79
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 84
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 85
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 10
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 13
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 17
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 26
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 38
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 5
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 50
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 7
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 81
    • Cicero, De Amicitia, 85
    • Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.99
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1.102
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1.27
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1.4
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1.7
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1.96
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 4.24
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 4.31
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 4.35
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 5.115
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 5.77
    • Cicero, Paradoxa Stoicorum, 25
    • Cicero, Paradoxa Stoicorum, 41
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.105
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.121
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.122
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.27
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.47
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.50
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.81
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.85
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 2.45
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 3.87
    • Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, Book 12, 3.9
    • Seneca, Epistulae, 85.34
    • Sallust, Catilinae Coniuratio, 14
    • Sallust, Catilinae Coniuratio, 19
    • Sallust, Catilinae Coniuratio, 21
    • Sallust, Catilinae Coniuratio, 32
    • Sallust, Catilinae Coniuratio, 37
    • Sallust, Catilinae Coniuratio, 45
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 100
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 11
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 111
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 14
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 28
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 4
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 41
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 49
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 7
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 85
    • Sallust, Bellum Iugurthinum, 89
    • Sextus Propertius, Elegies, 1.7
    • Persius, Saturae, 3
    • Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 4.16
    • Curtius, Historiarum Alexandri Magni, 3.7.11
    • Curtius, Historiarum Alexandri Magni, 4.12.11
    • Curtius, Historiarum Alexandri Magni, 4.6.1
    • Curtius, Historiarum Alexandri Magni, 7.1.1
    • Curtius, Historiarum Alexandri Magni, 9.3.13
    • Cicero, Orator, 33
    • Cicero, Timaeus, 14
    • Cicero, Timaeus, 3
    • Cicero, De Inventione, 2.34
  • Cross-references in notes from this page (37):
    • Caesar, Gallic War, 1.19
    • Caesar, Gallic War, 1.36
    • Caesar, Gallic War, 1.42
    • Caesar, Gallic War, 2.4
    • Caesar, Gallic War, 3.9
    • Caesar, Gallic War, 7.69
    • Cicero, For Marcus Caelius, 25
    • Cicero, Against Catiline, 2
    • Cicero, Against Verres, 1.1.23
    • Cicero, Against Verres, 2.1.142
    • Cicero, Against Verres, 2.2.46
    • Cicero, Against Verres, 2.5.130
    • Cicero, For Lucius Murena, 55
    • Cicero, For Milo, 75
    • Cicero, Against Piso, 12
    • Vergil, Aeneid, 1.105
    • Vergil, Aeneid, 1.335
    • Vergil, Aeneid, 1.347
    • Vergil, Aeneid, 1.544
    • Vergil, Aeneid, 5.488
    • Vergil, Eclogues, 4
    • Horace, Satires, 1.10.49
    • Horace, Ars Poetica, 467
    • Horace, Ars Poetica, 56
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.108
    • Caesar, Civil War, 3.71
    • Tacitus, Annales, 16.21
    • Tacitus, Historiae, 1.89
    • Terence, The Brothers, 4.7
    • Livy, The History of Rome, Book 21, 15
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 56
    • Cicero, De Senectute, 68
    • Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 4.30
    • Cicero, Paradoxa Stoicorum, 34
    • Cicero, De Officiis, 1.83
    • Gellius, Noctes Atticae, 20.1.38
    • Cicero, De Inventione, 1.2
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