BOOK FOURTH. — B.C. 55.
CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE GERMANS. — The year B.C. 55 appears to have been marked by a general movement in the migration of the German tribes. An advance, consisting of two tribes, tile Usipetes and Tencteri, crowded forward by the more powerful Suevi, crossed the lower Rhine into northern Gaul. Caesar assumed the defence of the country he had just conquered, drove them back across the Rhine, followed them up by an expedition into their own territories, and fully established the supremacy of the Roman arms. Another brief campaign in Germany two years later confirmed this success, and the Rhine became the military frontier, recognized for many centuries, between the Roman Empire and the barbarian world. READING REFERENCES ON THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE GERMANS. Dodge's Caesar, chap. 10. Fowler's Julius Caesar, chap. 12. Froude's Caesar, chap. 16. Holmes's Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, chap. 5. Merivale's Hist. of Rome, Vol. I. pp. 365-375. Mommsen's Hist. of Rome, Vol. IV. pp. 309-312. Napoleon's Caesar, Vol. II. chap. 7. Plutarch's Lives, Caesar. Tacitus's Germania. Trollope's Caesar, chap 5.[*] 94.1. ea quae, etc.: mark the emphasis as shown by the order and compare the opening of Bk. iii and note. — Pompeio, Crasso: i.e. the year B.C. 55. Observe that the usual way of fixing a year is by naming the consuls for that year. The coalition between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, sometimes called the First Triumvirate, had been formed five years before. In carrying out the scheme, Caesar held the government of Gaul, while the others took into their own hands the whole control of affairs at home （see Introd., "Life of Caesar"）. [*] 94.2. Usipetes, Tencteri: beyond the Rhine, a little below Cologne. [*] 94.4. quo: adv. = in quod. [*] 94.5. quod … prohibebantur: Caesar states this reason as his own, therefore the indic. — Suevis: this people （the modern Swabians） occupied the greater part of central Germany, and was made up of several independent tribes. [*] 94.6. premebantur, prohibebantur: the imperfects here express that which was still going on, they were being hard pressed, etc. [*] 94.8. centum pagos （see 10 12）: there is probably some confusion here with the ancient German institution of the Hundred, a division of the population giving its name to a district of territory. Each hundred seems to have sent 1000 men （singula milia） to the army. The term early lost its numerical value, and became a mere local designation. [*] 94.9. bellandi causā: gerund, expressing purpose with causā. Observe that causa in this use always follows its case ; cf. above causa transeundi, with a totally different meaning. [*] 94.11. hi … illi, the latter … the former. — anno post, the following year （§ 424. f (259. d); B. 357. 1; G. 403. N. 4; H. 488. 1 (430); cf. H-B. 424）. [*] 94.12. ratio, theory （theoretical knowledge）; usus, practice （knowledge derived from experience）. [*] 94.13. sed: i.e. they attended to agriculture systematically, but, etc.— privati … agri: i.e. the land was held in tribal communities. [*] 94.14. longius anno: i.e. the community had no fixed possessions, but was transferred yearly from one tract to another, its place being taken by another community. As is shown in Bk. vi. ch. 22, the community was composed of persons kindred by birth. The annual shifting of occupancy would prevent at once forming local attachments, building up large properties, and too rapidly exhausting the soil. [*] 94.15. frumento （abl. of means）, etc.: they were still in a half-nomadic state, though with some little advance in agriculture （cf. Bk. vi. ch. 22, and Tacitus, Ger. 27）.— maximam partem: adv. acc.; it is worth while to learn the few words that commonly occur in this construction; see § 390. c (240. a, b); B. 185. 1; G. 334. R. 2; H. 416. 2 (378. 2); cf. H-B. 388. [*] 94.17. quae res: cf. note on 30 19. [*] 95.1. quod … faciunt: this clause is a parenthesis: because, having been trained from childhood to no service or discipline, they do nothing whatever against their will, — a lively contrast of barbarous manners with the severity of Roman family and civil discipline. [*] 95.3. alit: the subj. is quae res. — homines [eos] efficit, makes [them] men, etc. [*] 95.4. eam: correl. with ut, introducing a clause of result. — locis （abl. abs., concessive） frigidissimis, even in their extreme climate. [*] 95.5. vestitūs: part. gen. with quicquam. — haberent, have; lavarentur, bathe （imperf. by sequence of tenses following adduxerunt: § 485. a (287. a); B. 268. 1; G. 511. R. 2; H. 546 (495. 1); H-B. 481）.
[*] 95.8. eo, ut … habeant, so （on this account） that they may have [some one] to whom, etc. [*] 95.9. quam quo … desiderent, than that they want, etc. （For the use of quo expressing cause with the implied negative, see § 592. N (341. R.); B. 323; G. 541. N. 1; H. 588. ii. 2 (516. 2); H-B. 535. 2. b.） [*] 95.11. impenso pretio, at high cost. — importatis non utuntur, do not import for use （lit. do not use imported）. [*] 95.13. deformia, ill-shaped. — summi laboris, [capable] of great labor （gen. of quality）. [*] 95.20. quamvis pauci, however few. — vinum: cf. the description of the Nervii, 59 22-26. They drank a kind of beer, however, and mead made of honey.
[*] 95.23. publice, as a community. [*] 95.26. una … Suevis, extending from （the territory of） the Suevi in one direction. — sexcenta: probably exaggerated. — agri, their lands. [*] 95.27. Ubii: along the Rhine, opposite Cologne. [*] 96.1. paulo … humaniores, somewhat more civilized than the others of that race （Germans）. [*] 96.4. cum: concessive, as shown by the following tamen. [*] 96.5. gravitatem, importance, referring to the warlike character and extensive resources of the people ; while amplitudinem refers to their great numbers. [*] 96.7. vectigalīs: sc. eos referring to the Ubii. — humiliores （pred.）, in translating sc. so as to be.
[*] 96.9. in eadem causa, in the same situation. [*] 96.12. quas regiones: North Brabant, with the north bank of the Rhine. [*] 96.13. ad utramque ripam, along both banks. [*] 96.14. multitudinis: see 102 10. [*] 96.16. cis Rhenum: i.e. the west side. [*] 96.18. vi contendere = to force a passage. [*] 96.22. confecto: with itinere. [*] 96.23. oppresserunt: not oppressed; see note on obtinere, 2 1. [*] 97.2. priusquam … fieret: § 551. b (327); B. 292; G. 577; H. 605. ii. (520. ii); H-B. 507. 4. b. See also note on 38 27. [*] 97.5. partem: acc. of time. — eorum copiis, on the supplies （cattle and grain）.
[*] 97.6. infirmitatem, weakness of purpose = fickleness. [*] 97.8. nihil … committendum, no confidence should be placed in them. Observe that committendum （esse） is impers. and nihil adv. acc. [*] 97.9. est … consuetudinis, it is [a point] of Gallic custom （§ 343. c (214. d); B. 198. 3; G. 366. R. 1; H. 439 (401); H-B. 340）. — uti … cogant, etc.: we have here a number of clauses of result in app. with hoc. [*] 97.14. rebus atque auditionibus, facts and hearsays. [*] 97.15. quorum eos … paenitere: § 354. b (221. b); B. 209. 1; G. 377 ; H. 457 (409. iii); H-B. 352. — in vestigio, on the spot; cf. 95 16. [*] 97.16. serviant, are slaves to. — plerique: i.e. the travellers and traders. [*] 97.17. eorum: i.e. the questioners.
[*] 97.18. graviori bello, too serious a war （i.e. unmanageable）. （§ 370 (228); B. 187. iii.; G. 347; H. 429 (386); H-B. 376.） [*] 97.19. maturius, earlier, i.e. in the season. — ad exercitum: the army was now in Normandy ; see 93 28. [*] 97.20. facta: sc. esse, so with missas below. [*] 97.21. missas legationes, etc.: these infin. clauses explain ea. [*] 97.22. uti … discederent: i.e. further into Gaul. The Belgae, it will be remembered, claimed kindred with the Germans, and were no doubt ready to assist them against the Romans. [*] 97.23. postulassent: for fut. perf. of dir. disc.; § 478, 519, 585 (281, 316, 336. b); B. 264, 312. 2, 318; G. 244, 516; H. 644. 2 (525. 2); H-B. 468. 6, 536, 470. ftn. 1. — fore parata, should be made ready （used for the fut. infin. pass.）. It depends on some word of saying, like promiserunt, implied in invitatos. Instead of fore parata, we might expect fore ut pararentur. [*] 97.24. Eburonum, etc.: German tribes. [*] 97.27. permulsis, calmed from their terror （lit. soothed by stroking, like a nervous horse）.
[*] 98.1. equitibus delectis: each of the allied states furnished its quota of cavalry. [*] 98.3. a quibus: refers to locis. [*] 98.5. priores, first, or, as aggressors （cf. the language of Ariovistus, Bk. i. ch. 36）. — neque recusare, they do not decline, followed by quin and subjv.; cf. 50 25. [*] 98.7. [haec]: may be translated. — quicumque: the anteced. is eis （dat.） implied with resistere. [*] 98.8. neque deprecari, and ask no quarter （lit. and not beg off）. — haec tamen dicere, this however they did say; supply se for subj. of dicere and following infinitives. For similar instances, see 59 23, 71 6, 71 23. [*] 98.10. eis: i.e. to the Romans. — attribuant, subjv. in indir. disc. for imperat. of the dir. [*] 98.11. eos: sc. agros. [*] 98.12. concedere, yield, as inferior. [*] 98.13. reliquum … neminem: the position gives a force like, BESIDES THESE there was no one ELSE on earth, etc.
[*] 98.15. quae visum est, what （it） seemed proper （to answer）. He probably answered somewhat as in Bk. i. chs. 14 and 43. [*] 98.20. Ubiorum: see ch. 3. [*] 98.21. quorum sint, etc., whose envoys （he informs them） are now with him to （lit. and） complain, etc.
[*] 98.25. post diem tertium （ = tertio die）, i.e. the next day but one. The first and last day are usually counted in the Roman reckoning. [*] 98.26. propius se: cf. 41 10. — id: i.e. the two days' delay （expressed by ne … moveret）. [*] 99.1. trans: i.e. westwardly. [*] 99.2. exspectari: change the voice and translate as active, they were waiting for.
[*] 99.4. Vosego, the Vosges: in fact, the Meuse flows from the plateau of Langres. [*] 99.5. parte … recepta: the Rhine branches in these low, marshy regions; one branch （Vacalus, the modern Waal） unites with the Meuse near Bois-le-duc （see note, ch. 15）. [*] 99.6. Omit the words in brackets. [*] 99.9. Nantuatium: cf. Bk. iii. ch. 1, where they are placed upon the Rhone, just above Lake Geneva; this was perhaps a branch or kindred tribe. The list of names here is incomplete. [*] 99.12. multis … effectis: translate actively, making many, etc. [*] 99.13. feris … nationibus: see the introduction to Motley's "Dutch Republic." [*] 99.15. captibus, mouths （more commonly, sources）.
[*] 99.17. ut erat constitutum, as had been arranged （i.e. the return of the envoys）. Either this is a careless expression, or Caesar's consent is omitted in ch. 9. It is there stated merely that they said they would return. [*] 99.19. eos equites （anteced. to qui）, the cavalry who, etc. [*] 99.20. antecessissent: attracted into the subjv. by the ut clause; cf. 73 5. — praemitteret: used without an object ; translate send word. [*] 99.21. sibi: i.e. the Germans. — potestatem: see note on 16 7. [*] 99.22. quorum si, and if their; cf. note on qui cum, 58 9. [*] 99.23. condicione … usuros, would accept the terms; see ch. 8. [*] 99.25. daret: sc. petebant uti from l. 19. — eodem illo pertinere, tended the same way （see ch. 9）, i.e. to gain time till the German cavalry should arrive （eodem and illo are adverbs）. [*] 99.28. aquationis causa: a small stream （probably the Niers） lay between him and the German encampment. [*] 100.3. accessisset: § 553 (328); B. 293. iii. 2; G. 572; H. 603. ii. 2 (519. ii. 2); H-B. 507. 5.
[*] 100.5. amplius DCCC, more than 800 （§ 407. c (247. c); B. 217. 3; G. 296. R. 4; H. 471. 4 (417. 1. N. 2); H-B. 416. d.）. Tacitus （Ger. 32） says that this tribe was distinguished for cavalry. [*] 100.9. indutiis: dat. of the end for which. [*] 100.10. resistentibus: sc. nostris. [*] 100.11. subfossis, etc.: after stabbing our horses underneath and dismounting several of our men; observe again, as in 99 12, that an abl. abs. with a pass. part. is often best translated actively. [*] 100.14. venissent: cf. 97 2. [*] 100.17. genere: abl. of source, § 403. a (244. a); B. 215; G. 395; H. 469. 2 (415. ii); H-B. 413. — regnum obtinuerat, had held supreme power. [*] 100.20. quoad: cf. this use and construction with that in l. 2.
[*] 100.25. neque iam, no longer: knowing how little his own cavalry （of Gauls） were to be trusted, and that the arrival of the main body of the Germans would put them at once to flight, Caesar resolved to attack at the first opportunity, right or wrong. [*] 100.26. ab eis qui, from men who, etc., followed by the subjv. of characteristic. [*] 101.1. exspectare: subj. of esse; note the emphasis of position. [*] 101.2. pementiae: pred. gen. [*] 101.3. quantum … auctoritatis, etc., how great prestige the enemyhad gained by one battle. [*] 101.5. quibus, i.e. the enemy （dat., inc. obj. of dandum [esse]）; on the relative serving as a connective, see note, 40 20. [*] 101.7. quaestore: see Bk. i. ch: 52. — ne quem, etc.: cf. 71 21. [*] 101.8. res, in app. with quod … venerunt. [*] 101.9. eadem perfidia: their perfidy Caesar takes for granted, as the best apology for his own; but the presence of the chiefs and old men looks more as if they came, as they said, to offer amends for the attack of the day before. [*] 101.11. simul … simul, partly … partly. — purgandi sui: cf. 77 3, and see § 504. c (298. a); B. 339. 5; G. 428. R. 1; H. 626. 3 (542. 1. N. 1); H-B. 614. [*] 101.12. contra atque, contrary to what; see vocab. Observe the subjunctives of implied indir. disc. in this passage. [*] 101.13. si quid … de indutiis = whatever （lit. if anything） they could in the way of truce. [*] 101.14. fallendo, i.e. by another trick. — quos, illos: both refer to the same subject. — quos oblatos [esse] gavisus, delighted that they were put in his power （gavisus, from gaudeo）. By detaining their chief men, he would at once perplex and disable them. [*] 101.17. subsequi, to follow in the rear; they usually went in advance （cf. 99 20）, but now he could not trust them in the intended attack.
[*] 101.18. acie triplici: i.e. a march in line of battle; see chapter on military affairs, VI and VII. [*] 101.19. quid ageretur, what was going on. [*] 101.20. possent: cf. 97 9, 100 34. [*] 101.21. et … et, both … and. [*] 101.23. ne … an … an （§ 335 (211); B. 162. 4; G. 458; H. 380 (353)）: the three infinitives all belong to praestaret, whether it was better. [*] 101.24. quorum timor cum: note the emphatic order. [*] 101.29. reliqua multitudo: the presence of women and children shows that it was a migration for settlement, not a mere inroad for plunder. [*] 102.1. ad quos consectandos （freq. of sequor）, to hunt them down. Referring to this massacre of helpless fugitives, Plutarch, in his "Life of Caesar," writes that when the Senate was voting public thanksgiving and processions on account of the victory, Cato proposed that Caesar should be given up to the barbarians to expiate that breach of faith, in order that the divine vengeance might fall upon its author rather than upon Rome. Cato was Caesar's bitter political and personal enemy, but still Caesar's cruelty and perfidy in this transaction can be justified only on the ground of absolute necessity. To secure the Roman power, he must destroy these Germans, in order to establish the Rhine as the Gallic frontier and deter others from crossing.
[*] 102.3. Germani: i.e. those who were fighting. — clamore: i.e. of those who were being massacred. [*] 102.4. signis: figures of animals carried on poles ; see Figs. 11, 70, 128. [*] 102.6. reliqua fuga, further flight. This action is usually placed at the junction of the Rhine and the Meuse. There are many reasons against this, but no other location seems possible without doing violence to the text, and for this no sufficient case is made out. [*] 102.9. ex … timore, relieved from [the apprehension of] so great a war. [*] 102.12. discedendi potestatem, permission to depart. This was a practical acquittal of the charge of treachery. [*] 102.13. veriti: regularly pres. act. in force, fearing.
[*] 102.17. illa, the following. [*] 102.19. suis: note the emphasis on this word. [*] 102.20. curia intellegerent: here nearly equivalent to a participle. [*] 102.21. accessit quod, and besides; see vocab. [*] 102.22. quam … transisse, which, as I mentioned above, had crossed; see 98 27 ff. （the conj. that of indir. disc. cannot be used in English to introduce a ref. clause）. Observe that Caesar the writer uses the first person （commemoravi） ; Caesar the actor is always in the third. [*] 102.25. Sugambrorum: living just north of the Ubii. [*] 102.27. intulissent: cf. antecessissent, 99 20. — dederent: observe the omission of ut （§ 565. a (331. f. R.); B. 295. 8; G. 546. R. 3; H. 565. 4 (499. 2); H-B. 502. 3. a. ftn. 2）. [*] 102.28. finire: see introd. note to Bk. iv. [*] 103.1. aequum: pred. adj. agreeing with the infin. clause Germanos … transire. [*] 103.2. sui … imperi: pred. gen. of possession after esse, under his power. [*] 103.7. occupationibus rei publicae, by the demands of state affairs. [*] 103.8. transportaret: same construction as ferret. [*] 103.9. futurum [esse]: sc. verb of saying from orabant, l. 5; so, too, for the following sentence. [*] 103.17. dignitatis: cf. 103 2.
[*] 103.19. latitudinem, etc.: Caesar's passage of the Rhine was most probably at Bonn, where the high and rocky banks begin ; or at Neuwied, 20 or 25 miles further south, where there is a break in the chain of hills, though here, it is said, the bottom is rock, and not fit for driving piles. The width of the river at either place is about 1400 feet, and its depth is very variable. It is now crossed in these parts by floating bridges of boats. [*] 103.21. rationem, plan. The brief description which Caesar gives of his rough and ready but very serviceable engineering may be made clearer by giving its different points as follows （see Fig. 59）: 1. A pair of unhewn logs, a foot and a half thick （tigna bina sesquipedalia）, braced two feet apart and sharpened at the end, are set up by derricks and driven with pile drivers （fistucis） into the bottom, sloping a little with the stream. 2. A similar pair is driven in opposite, 40 feet below, sloping a little in the other direction against the stream ; the upper ends of the two pairs would thus be some 25 or 30 feet apart, the width of the roadway. It is possible, as Rustow thinks, that the 40 feet refer to the top and not to the bottom of the piles. 3. A beam of square timber, two feet thick （trabs bipedalis）, and about 30 feet long, is made fast at the ends by ties （fibulis） between the logs of each pair, — which are thus kept at a proper distance apart, while they are strongly braced against the current. 4. A suitable number （probably about 60） of these trestles, or timber-arches, having been built and connected by cross-ties,—this part of the structure must be taken for granted,—planks are then laid lengthwise of the bridge （directa materia）, resting on the heavy floor-timbers ; and upon these, again, saplings and twigs （longurii, crates） are spread, to prevent the jar and wear of the carts and hoofs of the pack-animals on the flooring. 5. Piles （sublicae） are then driven in below, resting obliquely against the logs, to which they serve as shores or buttresses （pro ariete）, and other heavier piles a little way above, to break the force of floating logs or boats sent down to destroy the bridge. [*] 103.22. tigna, probably unhewn logs. — bina, two and two, i.e. in pairs. [*] 103.24. pedum duorum: i.e. between the timbers of each pair. — cum … defixerat, etc.: cum here equals whenever or as often as and the clause is equivalent to the protasis of a general condition; hence the use of the pluperf. indic. ; cf. 84 22 and note. [*] 103.26. sublicae modo, like a pile. [*] 103.27. ut … procumberent, so as to lean forward in the direction of the current. [*] 103.29. ab inferiore parte, down stream. — contra … conversa, slanting against, agrees with duo [tigna]. [*] 103.30. haec utraque … distinebantur, these two sets （or pairs） were held apart by two-foot timbers laid on above, equal [in thickness] to the interval left by the fastening of the beams （quantum … distabat）, with a pair of ties at each end. For number of utraque, see vocab. [*] 104.2. quibus [tignis] … revinctis, after these were held apart and secured in opposite directions: i.e. the horizontal beams held the piles （tigna） apart, which, sloping in opposite directions, had been secured by the clamps. [*] 104.4. rerum, structure; see note on 4 4. — quo major … hoc artius: the greater … the more closely, abl. of degree of difference. The only doubtful part of the description is in fibulis, of which the exact meaning is somewhat uncertain. They are thought by some to be cross-ties （as in Fig. 80）. But, as the word means properly a kind of clasp exactly like a modem safety-pin, it seems better to suppose they were damps joining the two piles with perhaps an iron bolt put through, answering to the pin of the fibula. [*] 104.5. haec … contexebantur, these （the framework of timber） were covered with boards placed lengthwise. [*] 104.7. sublicae … agebantur, piles also were driven on the lower side in a slanting direction, so as to prop the bridge against the current. [*] 104.8. pro ariete, as a buttress. [*] 104.10. aliae item: other piles a little way above, to serve as a break-water. There is nothing in the text to show whether these were attached to the bridge or not.—spatio: abl. of degree of difference. [*] 104.11. deiciendi operis: pred. gen. expressing tendency or purpose （§ 504. a. N. 1 (298. R.); B. 339. 6; G. 428. R. 2; H. 544. N. 2; H-B. 616, last example）, to throw down the work. [*] 104.12. neu … nocerent, and that they （trunci, etc.） might not harm the bridge.
[*] 104.14. diebus x quibus, within ten days from the time when. — coepta erat: pass. because used with the pass. infin.; cf. 53 6; see also l. 20 below. [*] 104.15. traducitur: the histor. pres., resumed from 102 21. [*] 104.16. Sugambrorum: these were a little to the northeast of the bridge. [*] 104.21. hortantibus eis, etc.: i.e. the few who had escaped the massacre of ch. 15, and had taken refuge across the Rhine. [*] 104.23. in solitudinem: notice that the Latin construction is that following verbs of motion, on account of the meaning of abdiderant; we say hid in, etc. [*] 104.27. pollicitus: this word implies a main clause in the infin:, se daturum, on which the conditional clause would depend. This clause does not appear, but the dependent clause remains in the subjv. according to the rule.
[*] 104.28. premerentur: a good example of the subjv. in implied indir. disc.; see note on 32 21. [*] 105.1. per exploratores: cf. note on 57 3. [*] 105.3. uti … convenirent: object clauses of purpose, following the verbal phrase nuntios … dimisisse, which involves an idea of sending orders or advice. The rest of the sentence contains only statements and is therefore in the indir. disc. construction. [*] 105.5. hunc, etc., this had been selected about the middle, etc.; medium is used as a pred. agreeing with hunc （§ 293 (193); B. 241. 1; G. 325. R. 6; H. 497. 4 (440. N. 2); H-B. 244.） in preference to an adverbial phrase in medio. [*] 105.7. decertare: not merely fight, but fight the decisive battle or decide the issue. This force of de is very common. [*] 105.10. ut … liberaret, etc.: these clauses are in app. with rebus, and their form as result clauses is determined by confectis; see note on 4 17. In English some change of construction is often necessary in such cases. Here, having accomplished, etc. （namely）, inspired, … chastised, … relieved. [*] 105.13. arbitratus: cf. 52 7 and note.
FIRST INVASION of BRITAIN.
What is called the First Invasion of Britain though it marks an interesting date in history, gave fresh stimulus to Roman curiosity and ambition, and had a significant moral effect, was in itself an affair of stroll account. It was, in fact, only meant for a reconnaissance, or, perhaps, to open the way to further schemes. Towards the end of summer, Caesar sailed across to the cliffs of Dover, coasted a few miles towards the west, and established a camp on the British coast. His cavalry, meanwhile, had been weatherbound in their transports, and then, after crossing, were driven back by rough winds, so that they did not even come to land. After holding an uneasy and perilous position for about three weeks, he returned to Gaul, without accomplishing anything beyond a barren display of daring. This expedition was, in fact, only intended for a 'demonstration.' Yet, as the beginning of the national history of England, the event assumes great interest and importance, so that it has given rise to volumes of comment and discussion both in France and England. READING REFERENCES ON THE FIRST INVASION OF BRITAIN. Abbott's Julius Caesar, pp. 97-106 Dodge's Caesar, chap. II. Fowler's Julius Caesar, chap 12. Froude's Caesar, chap. 16. Merivale's Hist. of Rome, Vol. 1. pp. 375-383. Mommsen's Hist. of Rome, Vol. IV. pp. 312, 313. Napoleon's Caesar, Vol. II. chap. 7. Scarth's Roman Britain, chap.2. Tacitus's Agricola. [*] 105.15. exigua … reliqua: abl. abs.; translate by a temporal clause. [*] 105.16. ad septentriones, towards the north （see vocab.）: cf. 1 1 ff. [*] 105.18. omnibus bellis: abl. of time.—hostibus: dat. after subministrata. [*] 105.19. si … tamen, even if time shouldfail, still, etc. [*] 105.20. fore: the subj. is practically the clause si … cognovisset, he thought it would be of great advantage if, etc. In all languages the proper subject is often absorbed in some different form of expression ; here it is properly 'that fact,' 'that result,' implied in the conditional clause. The idiom is the same in English except that we supply 'it.' [*] 105.21. adisset, etc.: the pluperf., represents the fut. perf. adierit of dir. disc. Observe in this sentence that while Caesar's action is given in the perf. （contendit）, his reasons are in the imperf. （intellegebat, arbitrabatur）; cf. note on 3 5. The conditional clauses si deficeret, si adisset, etc., are strictly fut. conditions carried into the past by the indir. disc. [*] 105.22. quae omnia, all of which （§ 346. e (216. e); B. 201. 1. b; G. 370. R. 2; H. 442. 2 (397. 2. N); H-B. 346. c.）. For the order, cf. 94 17, 30 19 and note. [*] 105.23. Gallis incognita: probably they were not so uninformed as they seemed; cf. the relations of Commius, 106 13-17, and of the Veneti, 78 19. — neque enim （neg. of etenim, § 324. h (156. d); cf. B. 341. 2. d; G. 498. N. 3; cf. H-B. 311. 6. a. and b）: to be rendered with quisquam, for no one. [*] 105.24. > illo: adv.; see vocab. — neque … quicquam, and nothing: observe that, as usual, the negative combines with the connective. — eis, dat. after notum （§ 375 (232. a); B. 189. 2; G. 354 ; H. 431. 2 (388. 1); H-B. 373. 2）. [*] 105.25. Gallias: i.e. Celtic and Belgic Gaul. [*] 105.26. vocatis … mercatoribus, etc., he called the traders, but could not, etc. [*] 105.27. quanta … portus: these indir. questions follow reperire poterat. Notice that the imperf. poterat is used rather than potuit, referring to his repeated questions to the different traders. [*] 105.28. quem usum, what degree of skill. — belli: cf. note on 41 14. [*] 106.1. CHAP. 21. faceret: the subjv. here indicates a purpose or calculation in Cesar's mind. The perf. ind. would refer only to priority of time; § 551 (327); B. 292; G. 577; H. 605. 2 (520. i. 2); cf. H-B. 507. 4. a; see also 38 27 and note. The English idiom expresses this by some such phrase as "before making the attempt." [*] 106.2. idoneum: this remark seems to have reference to his actual want of success, as appears later. — Volusenum: one of Caesar's tribunes; see 77 11. — navi longa: see chapter on military affairs, ix, and Figs, 48, 51. [*] 106.5. Morinos, occupying the nearest point to Britain (Boulogne, Calais, Ostend, etc.): in clear weather the British coast is in sight from these shores. [*] 106.7. quam … classem: § 307. b (200. b); B. 251. 4; G. 616; H. 399. 5 (445. 9); H-B. 284. 6. — Veneticum bellum: see Bk. iii. chs. 7-16. [*] 106.9. insulae: Britain was supposed to be an island, but the fact was not established, so far as we know, until more than a century later, when the Romans sailed around it. [*] 106.10. qui polliceantur: a purpose clause, but in English best expressed by the pres. part. [*] 106.11. dare: complem. infln., instead of se daturos [esse] a use not uncommon in Caesar, and apparently somewhat colloquial; § 580. c. N. (330. f. N.); cf. B. 328. 1; G. 531. N. 4; H. 618. I (537. N.); H-B. 593. a. — imperio: § 367 (227); B. 187. ii. a; G. 346; H. 426. I (385); H-B. 362. [*] 106.14. Atrebatibus (see Bk. ii. chs. 4, 16, 23): the same people, it is said, had occupied Berkshire in England, whence the supposed influence of Commius. — ibi: i.e. among the Atrebates ; § 321. a (207. a); G. 611. R. 1; H. 308. 2 (304. iii. 2). [*] 106.16. fidelem, etc.: perhaps Caesar says this in view of the fact that Commius afterwards turned against him; see Bk. vix. ch. 76. [*] 106.17. magni: gen. of indefinite value; § 417 (252. a); B. 203. 3; G. 380; H. 448 (404); H-B. 356. 1. — huic: indir. obj. of imperat; the order he gave is the whole clause down to nuntiet. [*] 106.18. fidem sequantur, i.e. accept the protection of. [*] 106.19. se: i.e. Caesar, the main subject, as usual in indir. disc. [*] 106.20. quantum (sc. tantum) … auderet, so far as opportunity could be given to one who did not venture, etc. [*] 106.22. auderet: subjv. of characteristic. [*] 106.23. perspexisset: for tense, see § 485. e (287. e); B. 268. 3: G. 511. R. 1; H. 546 (495. ii); H-B. 491 and 2; the sequence of tenses does not depend upon the form of statement, but on the time as conceived in the writer's mind. [*] 106.26. CHAP, 22. superioris temporis, of the season before (see Bk. iii. ch. 28). [*] 106.27. homines barbari, being (as they were) barbarians. — consuetudinis: § 349. a (218. a); B. 204. 1; G. 374; H. 451. I (399. i. 2); H-B. 354. [*] 106.28. fecissent: the statement of the ambassadors, hence subjv. on the principle of implied indir. disc. [*] 106.29. pollicerentur: the same construction as excusarent, above. [*] 107.1. arbitratus: translate as present, as often with the perf. part. of dep. verbs. [*] 107.2. belli gerendi: obj. gen.; connect with facultatem. [*] 107.3. has … anteponendas, that occupation about these little matters should take precedence of [the invasion of] Britain. For the number of occupationes, see § 100. c (75. c); B. 55. 4. c; G. 204. N.5; H. 138. 2 (130. 2); H-B. 240. 5. b. [*] 107.4. iudicabat: note this and the preceding descriptive imperfects; cf. note on 3 5. [*] 107.6. navibus: see chapter on military affairs, ix. — coactis, gathered from various quarters; [contractis] (which may well be translated), brought together into port. This must have been either at Boulogne or a few miles farther north, at Wissant. The port has never been satisfactorily determined, but it must have been between Boulogne and Calais, about twenty miles apart in a straight line, which is near enough to give a definite idea of the place (see map, Fig. 56). This whole coast has suffered enormous alterations since Caesar's time, and everything is much changed. [*] 107.7. duas legiones: the seventh and tenth. [*] 107.8. quod … habebat, what galleys he had besides. [*] 107.10. ex eo loco, etc.: this would be at Ambleteuse or at Calais, according to the location of the main port. — tenebantur quo minus, were detained from, the usual construction after verbs of hindering: § 558. b. (317. b. N. 1, 319. c); B. 295. 3; G. 549; H. 568. 8 (499. 3. N.2); H-B. 502. 3. b. [*] 107.12. equitibus: of these there were 450. [*] 107.18. CHAP. 23. tertia … vigilia, at midnight. The date was very near August 26, when high water would be about half past seven P.M.; the ships, therefore, could go out at about half-tide. — solvit, cast off the ships: a technical phrase used like our weighed anchor. — equites: these were to embark at Ambleteuse, as stated above. [*] 107.20. paulo tardius: they sailed after a delay of three days (ch. 28). [*] 107.21. hora … quarta: this would be about ten A.M., an hour after high tide. The distance across is about thirty miles, and the landing was near Dover, where he lay at anchor till half past three. [*] 107.24. montibus anguste, etc.: i.e. the cliffs came close to the shore. [*] 107.26. dum … convenirent, until the other ships should come up: § 553 (328); B. 293. iii. 2; G. 572; H. 603. ii. 2 (519. ii. 2); H-B. 507. 5. When is dum followed by the indic. ? cf. 24 24, 33 20, 41 9. [*] 107.29. Voluseno: cf. 106 2 and 19. [*] 108.1. ut . . . postularent, as military science and especially seamanship require: rel. clause following monuit [ut] … administrarentur, enjoined that everything should be done promptly. Ut is omitted after monuit, as is often the case after verbs of directing or urging. The rel. clause has the subjv. because an integral part of the command. [*] 108.2. ut quae … haberent, since they have, etc.: the imperf. is used by sequence of tenses; § 535. e (320. e); B. 283. 3; G. 633; H. 592. I (517. 3. 1); H-B. 523 and b. [*] 108.4. his dimissis, when they were sent to their posts (observe the distributive effect of di-). — aestum … secundum: the tide in this place would not turn east and north until about half past six. [*] 108.6. progressus: towards the north. [*] 108.7. aperto … litore: thought to be somewhere near Deal and Walmer Castle. [*] 108.9. CHAP. 24. essedariis: the essedum was a two-wheeled war chariot; see Figs. 123, 124. — quo … genere: i.e. including both cavalry and chariots, as described below, 114 5 ff. [*] 108.10. consuerunt: to be translated by what tense? cf. 59 14 and note. — egredi: infin. for the more usual ne or quominus with the subjv.; cf. 107 10 and note. [*] 108.12. alto: here a noun; see Vocab. [*] 108.13. militibus (dat. after desiliendum), the men had to leap down. [*] 108.14. oppressis (taken with militibus), weighted as they were. Notice in this passage the free use of participles and phrases to modify the main idea, first the abi. of place, then the abl. abs., then a participle agreeing directly with militibus. [*] 108.16. cum … conicerent, while they (the Britons), etc.: a good example of cum and the subjv. describing the situation; cf. 11 7, 62 13. [*] 108.18. insuefactos, trained to it, i.e. to charge to the water's edge. [*] 108.20. generis: gen.; cf. 106 27. [*] 108.21. pedestribus, on land, where the main strength lay in infantry. [*] 108.22. CHAP. 25. navis: subject of removeri; § 563. a (330. B. 2); B. 331. ii, 587. b; G. 423. N.6; H. 613. 2 (535. ii); H-B. 587. b. [*] 108.23. inusitatior, quite strange. [*] 108.25. latus apertum: i.e. the right, unprotected by their shields. — inde: connect with propelli ac submoveri. [*] 108.26. tormentis: see chapter on military affairs, I. 5, and Figs. 61, 75, 95. — ac: notice that this word always adds something with emphasis. [*] 108.27. quae res, a manoeuvre which: cf. 94 17 and see note on 30 19. [*] 109.2. qui … ferebat, the one who carried: the antecedent of qui is the understood subject of inquit. — X legionis: again the splendid tenth distinguishes itself; cf. 36 24, 67 26. [*] 109.3. obtestatus, appealing to. Such prayers almost always preceded any formal address among the Romans, like "God save the Commonwealth of Massachusetts." The words would be Quod vobis feliciter eveniat, desilite, etc. — legioni, imperatori: dat. of reference. [*] 109.4. nisi voltis: a present simple condition; § 515 and a (306 and a); B. 302 and 4; G. 595; H. 574, 580 (508 and 4); H-B. 579, 582. 1. [*] 109.5. ego certe … praestitero, I at any rate shall have done, etc.: § 478. N. (281. R.); B. 264. a; G. 244; H. 540 (473); cf. H-B. 494. [*] 109.8. inter se, one another: § 301. f (196. f); B. 245. 1; G. 221; H. 502. I (448. N); H-B. 266. — universi, in a body. [*] 109.9. ex proximis navibus, from the nearest ships. Omit [primis]. [*] 109.10. adpropinquaverunt: the subject is the soldiers, implied. [*] 109.11. CHAP. 26. ab utrisque, on both sides: cf. utraque, 103 30. [*] 109.13. poterant … submittebat: notice the numerous imperfects in this description, implying repeated or continuous action. — alius alia ex navi, men from different ships: § 315. c (203. c); B. 253. 2; G. 319; H. 516. 1 (459. i); H-B. 265. — quibuscumque signis: dat. after occurrerat; the antecedent noun and pronoun (eis signis), if expressed, would be dat. after adgregabat. [*] 109.15. ubi … conspexerant … adoriebantur, etc.: a general condition, whenever they saw, etc.; cf. 84 22, 103 24, and notes. [*] 109.16. singularis, scattered soldiers. [*] 109.17. adoriebantur, would attack: to express the repeated action. So, too, circumsistebant and coniciebant. [*] 110.1. ab latere aperto: see 108 25. — in universos, upon the whole body. This word means not merely all, but all at once, or all together, and the like; cf. universi, 109 8. [*] 110.3. speculatoria navigia: swift, light boats for reconnaissance. — quos … conspexerat … submittebat: another general condition, pre- cisely like the one noted above (109 15), quos equalling whomsoever, or if any. [*] 110.5. simul [atque], as soon as. — suis omnibus consecutis, and all their comrades had joined them. [*] 110.7. longius, very far. — quod equites, etc.: they were wind-bound at the upper harbor, 107 9-12. [*] 110.9. fortunam: this is not a mere casual remark, but an expression of his belief in 'his star,' always an important factor in the greatness of a commander ; cf. 36 14 and note on 10 17.[*] 110.12. quae imperasset, what he should require （in dir. disc. quae imperaveris）. [*] 110.13. quem … praemissum [esse]: 106 13-19. [*] 110.15. hunc, etc.: it is not unlikely that his imprisonment was a mere pretence.—oratoris modo, in the character of envoy （or spokesman）. [*] 110.19. ut ignosceretur, that their act might be pardoned: ignosco may take a dir. obj. of the thing, with an indir obj. of the person （§ 369 (227. f)）; B. 187. i. a; H-B. 364. 4; hence the word here may be either personal or impersonal. [*] 110.20. cum ultro, etc.: cf; 106 10. [*] 110.21. bellum … intulissent: these barbarous people might well be pardoned for mistaking Caesar's expedition for an invasion.—ignoscere: for the omission of the subject, cf. note on 59 23. [*] 110.23. arcessitam, after they had been fetched. [*] 110.24. remigrare, to move back, i.e. from the strongholds to their farms.
[*] 110.27. post diem quartum quam, three days after （accordingto English reckoning）; § 424. f (259. d); B. 357. 1; G. 403. N. 4, a; H. 488. 1 (430); H-B. 550. c. [*] 110.28. naves, etc: see 107 9. [*] 111.3. Britanniae: § 370 (228); B. 187. iii; G. 347; H. 429 (386); H-B. 376, cf. 362.—tempestas: from the northeast. [*] 111.4. aliae … aliae, some … others. [*] 111.6. propius occasum: cf. 98 26. [*] 111.7. cum … complerentur, since they began to fill: the imperf. shows that the action was not completed. [*] 111.8. adversa nocte, in spite of the darkness.
[*] 111.10. eadem nocte: this was probably the night of August 30; the moon was then full at 3 A.M. [*] 111.11. aestus maximos, very high tides. The ocean tides, rising here between twenty and thirty feet, were a strange phenomenon to those who had known only the tideless waters of the Mediterranean. One is at a loss to understand why the Romans had not learned more about the tides in the war with the Veneti. [*] 111.13. navīs: obj. of compleverat.—[quibus, etc.]: an unnecessary explanation, and may be omitted. [*] 111.15. adflictabat （intensive）, dashed about. [*] 111.16. facultas, etc.: i.e. chance to manage their own ships or help their companions. [*] 112.1. funibus … amissis, etc., from the loss of, etc. [*] 112.2. id quod: see § 307. d (200. e); B. 247. 1. b; G. 614. R. 2; H. 399. 6 (445. 7); H-B. 325. a. N. 2. [*] 112.4. quibus = ut eis: result. [*] 112.5. quod … constabat, because it was understood: the subj. is oportere, of which the subj. is hiemari, that it was best to winter in Gaul. [*] 112.7. provisum: see note on 56 16.
[*] 112.8. principes: subj. of duxerunt in l. 14.
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| Figure 123. Gallic coin. Reverse: L. Hostilius Sasern[a]. Warrior fighting, armed with spear and shield, in a Gallic chariot (essedum) driven by a charioteer holding a whip. |
[*] 112.20. At Caesar: emphatic transition to Caesar from what the soldiers feared and the Britons planned; cf. 68 8. [*] 112.21. ex eventu navium, from what had befallen the ships.—ex eo quod, from the fact that. [*] 112.22. suspicabatur, began to suspect. [*] 112.24. quae … naves, earum, etc., the timber and the bronze of those ships which, etc. （§ 307. b (200. b); G. 616; H. 399. 5 (445. 9); H-B. 284. 6）. [*] 112.25. aere: the Romans used the word aes both for copper and bronze. These metals were more common than iron in the Roman ships, as they do not rust. They were employed to sheathe the rostrum and to make the spikes that held the timbers together.
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| Figure 124. Gallic coin. Reverse: Warrior armed with spear and shield, and holding a Gallic trumpet (carnyx). standing in a two-wheeled chariot, drawn by two galloping horses. L[ucius] LIC[inius] CN[aeus] DOM[itius]. |
[*] 113.1. geruntur: § 556 (276. e); B. 293. i; G. 229. R.; H. 533. 4 (467. iii. 4); H-B. 559. Notice that this present is regular with dum when there is no contrast of time. Cf. the use of dum, 107 26.—frumentatum: supine; cf. 26 15. [*] 113.3. pars hominum, some of the people. [*] 113.4. remaneret: indicating peaceable intentions on the part of the enemy.—ventitaret, returned from time to time （freq. or iter., § 263. 2 (167. b); B. 155. 2; G. 191. 1; H. 364 (336); H-B. 212. 1）. [*] 113.5. statione: such outposts or pickets were always on duty to guard the camp, usually a cohort at each gate. [*] 113.6. quam … ferret, than usual. [*] 113.7. id quod erat, what was the fact. [*] 113.8. aliquid … consili （part. gen.）, that some new design was on foot; infin. clause in app. with id. [*] 113.11. armari, to arm; in verbs thus used reflexively, English prefers the active and Latin the passive form.—paulo longius, some little distance. [*] 113.12. premi … sustinere, were getting hard pushed, and hardly held their ground. [*] 113.13. conferta legione （abl. abs.）, the legion was closely crowded together, while weapons were hurled, etc. Observe the tendency of Latin to convey a description, as here, by a participial phrase. [*] 113.15. una, only one.—suspicati, supposing; cf. 107 1 and note. [*] 114.2. dispersos, occupatos: agreeing with nostros understood from the preceding line. [*] 114.3. incertis ordinibus （abl. abs.）, because the ranks were unsteady.
[*] 114.5. ex essedis: these chariots held six men （essedarii） wach besides the driver （auriga）, and were drawn by two horses. [*] 114.6. terrore equorum: subj. gen., the terror that the horses arouse. [*] 114.8. cum se … insinuaverunt, when they have worked their way between; the protasis of a general condition, ex essedis … proeliantur, being the apodosis ; cf. 103 24. The perf. indict with cum is here used as a protasis because a repeated action is spoken of.—equitum, the cavalry of the Britons. When the essedarii had dismounted, the British line was composed of alternate bodies of horse and foot. [*] 114.10. illi: i.e. the fighting men spoken of above. [*] 114.11. expeditum … receptum, a ready retreat. [*] 114.13. praestant, exhibit. Caesar was much struck with the efficiency of the German and British horse （see ch. 12）, and later made it the basis of important changes in the Roman army. The ordinary cavalry was never able to cope with infantry; cf. Caesar's stratagem in 38 1. [*] 114.14. uti … consuerint: clause of result following efficiunt.—declivi ac praecipiti loco, a steep downward slope. [*] 114.15. incitatos equos sustinere, to check their horses in fall gallop （comp. infin. after consuerint）.—brevi, within a short space. [*] 114.16. iugo: made of straight or curved wood, resting on the necks of the horses and holding up the pole of the chariot.
[*] 114.18. quibus rebus, under these circumstances: abl. of means.—nostris: dat. following tulit auxilium.—novitate: depends on perturbatis. [*] 114.22. alienum: see note on 13 6. [*] 114.26. quae … continerent: note the subjv. [*] 115.1. quanta … facultas daretur: indir. quest. following demonstraverunt. [*] 115.2. sui liberandi: cf. 40 15 and note.
[*] 115.7. ut … effugerent: a result clause in app. with idem, the subj. of fore, namely, that if, etc. [*] 115.8. effugerent, would escape; the future idea is given by fore.—equites xxx: these few cavalry would be of no service in an engagement, but only in pursuit. To chase and cut down the beaten army was considered an essential part of the battle. [*] 115.9. ante: i.e. 106 13-19, 110 13-17. [*] 115.12. tanto spatio, over as much ground （§ 425. b (257. b); B. 223; G. 389; H. 417. 3 (379. 2); cf. H-B. 426. c）.
[*] 115.19. die aequinocti, etc. （Sept. 24, always held to be a stormy season）, since the time of the equinox was near and his ships were unseaworthy. Napoleon III estimates that the return to Gaul occurred Sept. 11 or 12. This would make the stay about three weeks. [*] 115.23. eosdem portus, the same ports with the others. [*] 115.24. paulo infra: the west current sets in on the French coast, while the east current is still running in mid-channel.
[*] 115.28. primo: adv.; see vocab. [*] 116.1. orbe: the circle was formed by a small body of troops when entirely surrounded by the enemy. It was generally hollow, with officers and baggage in the centre.
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| Figure 125. Caliga. |
[*] 116.12. siccitatīs: see § 100. c (75. c); B. 55. 4. c; G. 204. 5; H. 138. 2 (130. 2); H-B. 240. 5. b; the tempestates of ch. 34 were apparently merely gusty weather without rain. [*] 116.13. reciperent: a purpose clause.—superiore anno: see Bk. iii. ch. 28. [*] 116.22. supplicatio: cf. end of Bk. ii. The crossing of the Rhine strongly impressed the minds of the Romans at home, and so, too, the passage into Britain, though the last was in fact a failure. But, though Caesar had added nothing to Roman power, he had opened a new world to Roman ambition.
